Suicide represents a serious public health issue, closely intertwined with feelings of hopelessness, helplessness, and existential questioning. Suicide, a major global public health concern, is often perceived as an escape from intense emotional, physical, or social distress. Suicidal ideation affects millions annually, with higher prevalence in low- and middle-income contexts likely due to reduced access to mental health support, greater loneliness, and heightened psychosocial stressors [48, 61]. These conditions create an environment where early intervention is often unavailable, and emotional suffering goes unaddressed. As a result, many individuals progress from ideation to action, contributing to the global scale of the issue. According to the World Health Organization [70], approximately 800,000 people die by suicide every year, with one person taking their life every 40 s [58]. Millions more struggle with suicidal ideation annually, a number that continues to rise.
Based on these explanations, suicidal ideation is a globally prevalent phenomenon, and although rates vary by region, research shows that low- and middle-income societies report higher rates of suicidal ideation than those with higher socioeconomic status [27, 61]. These disparities suggest that economic, social, and psychological factors significantly shape suicide vulnerability. Given this, the present study controls for socioeconomic status while examining the psychological mechanisms linking social network addiction, online gaming addiction, and suicidal ideation. Prior studies have shown that lower socioeconomic status is correlated with greater loneliness, higher psychological distress, and reduced access to social support [39, 54], all of which are relevant to suicide risk.
Besides these, loneliness has emerged as a key psychological mechanism linking behavioral addictions to suicidal ideation [25]. Defined as a subjective experience of social disconnection, loneliness is understood to be closely associated with emotional vulnerability and reduced mental well-being [7]. Because excessive engagement in digital environments such as social networking platforms and online games can displace real-world social interactions, intensifying feelings of loneliness [30]. In this context, loneliness may function both as a mediating factor, explaining how social network addiction and online gaming addiction contribute to suicidal ideation, and as a moderating factor, amplifying the psychological impact of these addictions. This dual role is grounded in the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide (ITS), which identifies thwarted belongingness, a conceptual cousin of loneliness, as a key driver of suicidal ideation. By disrupting individuals’ sense of connection and emotional security, loneliness may act both as a consequence of digital overuse and a vulnerability that magnifies its effects [4, 62]. These two domains—one socially oriented and feedback-driven, the other immersive and performance-based—represent distinct yet complementary digital behaviors, both of which are especially relevant to emotional detachment and mental health risks [6, 40]. In this context, loneliness may function both as a mediating factor, explaining how social network addiction and online gaming addiction contribute to suicidal ideation, and as a moderating factor, amplifying the psychological impact of these addictions.
The role of loneliness may also be shaped by sociocultural context. Especially in Turkish society, collectivist values and family-centered norms emphasize social cohesion, mutual obligation, and relational interdependence. When individuals perceive a loss of connection or fail to meet relational expectations, the psychological burden of loneliness may be particularly acute [5, 63]. Moreover, when digital interactions substitute face-to-face relationships, this may further erode traditional support structures, making loneliness more salient and distressing [28]. Considering these dynamics, understanding how cultural dynamics affect the pathways of social network addiction to suicidal ideation and online gaming addiction to suicidal ideation is thought to be important in terms of contextualizing the findings and developing culturally sensitive interventions.
At this point, suicidal ideation may be triggered by a range of psychological, relational, and behavioral factors, including mood disorders, social isolation, family stress, economic hardship, and addictive behaviors [17, 68]. While digital platforms offer convenience and connectivity, they may also foster perfectionism, unrealistic comparisons, and social withdrawal. Exposure to idealized content on social media, for example, can lead to feelings of inadequacy, low self-worth, and loneliness [14, 29], particularly in individuals prone to overuse. Similarly, competitive and immersive online gaming environments may disrupt real-world responsibilities and relationships, elevating suicidal ideation [8]. These risks highlight the need to evaluate the mental health impacts of digital behavior comprehensively. Indeed, also stigma surrounding mental health, loneliness, and suicide continues to be prevalent in Turkish society [24, 52]. In this context, individuals may use social networks or online games as emotional escape mechanisms. However, these platforms often lack the depth and authenticity of real-life social bonds, which can compound loneliness [28] and even increase suicidal ideation [50]. Identifying culturally specific drivers of digital overuse and understanding their psychological effects is essential for informing prevention strategies and public health initiatives targeting suicidal ideation among Turkish adults.
Theoretical background
As partially mentioned above, the ITS, which emphasizes that suicide arises from the interplay of personal and social factors, identifies two core psychological states as precursors to suicidal ideation: perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness. Perceived burdensomeness refers to the belief that one is a burden to others and lacks value, while thwarted belongingness captures a subjective sense of alienation or lack of meaningful social connection. When both states co-occur, the risk of suicidal ideation increases significantly [22, 62].
In this study, we focus on thwarted belongingness, which aligns conceptually with loneliness, the main construct in our proposed model. Loneliness is understood as a subjective experience of social disconnection, emotional isolation, or unfulfilled interpersonal needs [69]. While perceived burdensomeness is acknowledged in ITS, it is not directly modeled or assessed in our current research and is therefore not included in our structural model. We conceptualize loneliness as both a mediator and a moderator in the relationship between social network addiction, online gaming addiction, and suicidal ideation. Theoretically, this dual role is grounded in ITS: loneliness, reflecting thwarted belongingness, can emerge as a consequence of addictive digital engagement (mediation) or act as a psychological vulnerability that shapes the strength of the relationship between behavioral addictions and suicidal ideation (moderation).
As a mediator, loneliness may develop due to excessive or compulsive use of social networks or online games, which replace real-life interactions and reduce emotional closeness [55]. Over time, this emotional disconnection may increase suicidal ideation. As a moderator, loneliness may intensify the impact of social network addiction or online gaming addiction on suicidal ideation by reducing coping resources and emotional resilience, making already vulnerable individuals more susceptible to suicide-related thoughts [43, 71]. Despite this theoretical justification, we recognize that assigning both roles to the same construct introduces complexity, especially within a cross-sectional design. Mediation assumes temporal sequencing i.e., that social network addiction/online gaming addiction leads to loneliness, which in turn leads to suicidal ideation. Moderation, on the other hand, assumes that loneliness is a pre-existing individual difference that influences the strength of the social network addiction–suicidal ideation or online gaming addiction—suicidal ideation relationship.
To address these concerns, we interpret the model as a theoretically driven exploratory framework, not a definitive causal structure. We employed statistical safeguards to mitigate overlap such as centering interaction terms and checking variance inflation factors to reduce multicollinearity. By focusing explicitly on thwarted belongingness and situating loneliness as its empirical proxy, our model presents a focused and theory-consistent application of ITS. This perspective is further supported by recent findings that link digital behavioral addictions to social disconnection and increased suicide risk [16]. Understanding loneliness as both an outcome of and amplifier for problematic digital engagement allows for a richer conceptualization of suicide pathways in digital-age contexts.
Digital behavioral addictions and suicidal ideation
With the growing popularity of social networking platforms and online games, concerns about their mental health impacts have intensified. Recent studies show that excessive or problematic engagement with these digital platforms known as social network addiction and online gaming addiction is linked to increased risk of psychological distress and suicidal ideation [47, 67]. Individuals immersed in these platforms may experience heightened exposure to idealized representations of others’ lives, leading to feelings of inadequacy, diminished self-esteem, and emotional distress [64]. Both social network addiction and online gaming addiction may foster isolation from real-life relationships, thereby reducing protective social bonds and increasing vulnerability to suicidal ideation [8]. These relationships warrant serious consideration in light of ITS, which posits that disrupted belongingness is a proximal cause of suicidal thoughts. Understanding how addictive digital behaviors influence emotional well-being and suicide risk is vital for developing early intervention strategies, particularly among youth and emerging adults who represent the highest-risk groups for these behavioral patterns.
Digital behavioral addictions and loneliness
While digital tools can facilitate connection, excessive use, particularly through social networks and online games can paradoxically lead to greater loneliness. Research indicates that social network addiction and online gaming addiction are both associated with reduced real-life social interaction, lower emotional intimacy, and increased social isolation [21, 38]. Individuals who rely on virtual interactions may develop superficial or transient connections that do not fulfill deeper emotional needs. This may especially affect users who substitute digital platforms for in-person relationships, weakening their sense of social integration and increasing their vulnerability to loneliness [45]. Within the ITS framework, this dynamic reflects the experience of thwarted belongingness, which is directly tied to suicidal ideation. Our model posits that social network addiction and online gaming addiction can increase loneliness, which either mediates the relationship to suicidal ideation or exacerbates it as a moderator. This dual conceptualization highlights the emotional risks posed by problematic digital behavior in socially vulnerable populations.
Loneliness and suicidal ideation
Loneliness is a powerful predictor of psychological distress and is often implicated in the emergence of suicidal ideation. In a digitally connected world, individuals may find themselves physically surrounded but emotionally isolated, especially when online relationships fail to provide genuine support or belonging [53]. Emotional loneliness, in particular, contributes to feelings of worthlessness and meaninglessness two well-known cognitive precursors to suicidal ideation [41]. Moreover, loneliness can impair coping resources, trigger negative self-appraisals, and lead to depressive symptoms [19], all of which increase psychological vulnerability. We position loneliness as a consequence of digital overuse (via social network addiction and online gaming addiction) that contributes to the development of suicidal ideation. While loneliness is shaped by both internal and external factors [37], its role in suicide risk is magnified in contexts where social comparison, emotional isolation, and perceived disconnection prevail. Consistent with ITS, our study targets thwarted belongingness as the active mechanism through which loneliness may lead to suicidal thoughts. By focusing on this single, theory-consistent pathway, we offer a model that is both theoretically sound and empirically actionable.
Current study
This study aims to investigate how common digital behavioral addictions, particularly social network addiction and online gaming addiction, affect suicidal ideation. For this purpose, the model shown in Fig. 1 was designed to examine both the potential mediating and moderating roles of loneliness in the relationship between social network addiction and online gaming addiction on suicidal ideation. Specifically, this study explores the influence of social network addiction and online gaming addiction on suicidal ideation, focusing on the mediating and moderating roles of loneliness. While this dual-role approach may appear conceptually ambitious, it is grounded in the ITS, which positions loneliness as a manifestation of thwarted belongingness, a main factor influencing suicidal thoughts.
Conceptual model of the research
From a theoretical perspective, loneliness may function as a mediator when it is understood as an emotional consequence of excessive engagement in social networking platforms or online games, which may displace real-world social interactions and ultimately increase suicidal ideation. Conversely, loneliness may function as a moderator when considered a pre-existing vulnerability that magnifies the psychological impact of digital behavioral addiction on suicidal ideation. This moderating role is especially relevant for individuals whose heightened loneliness amplifies their sensitivity to the emotional disruptions caused by social network addiction and online gaming addiction. Mediation analysis assumes temporal ordering (i.e., social network addiction/online gaming addiction loneliness suicidal ideation), while moderation assumes that loneliness is a stable trait influencing the strength of the social network addiction/online gaming addiction-suicidal ideation relationship. By examining these correlations, the research seeks to clarify how digital behavioral addictions in the digital age may contribute to suicidal ideation, providing evidence for preventive mental health strategies. Past studies have consistently found that social network addiction and online gaming addiction are correlated with increased feelings of loneliness and, subsequently, with suicidal ideation [21, 36]. Based on this literature, the following hypotheses were developed:
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H1. Both social networking addiction and online gaming addiction have positive direct effects on loneliness and suicidal ideation.
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H2. Loneliness partially mediates the positive relationships between social networking addiction, online gaming addiction, and suicidal ideation.
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H3. Loneliness moderates the associations between social networking addiction and suicidal ideation, as well as between online gaming addiction and suicidal ideation, such that these associations are stronger at higher levels of loneliness.