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In CA 426’s exploration of the impact of the Viking Great Army on the north of England, we mentioned research that had shed light on the make-up of a Viking hoard discovered at Bedale, 56km (35 miles) from York. Here, we will dig deeper into this study, sharing its main findings (which were published in full in Archaeometry: https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.70031) and exploring what they reveal about the probable provenances of the hoard.
The Bedale Hoard was discovered in 2012 by metal-detectorists and was subsequently excavated by Dr Adam Parker and Rebecca Griffiths of York Museums Trust. They recovered 36 silver objects and one gold sword pommel, all appearing to date to the Viking Age.
In order to explore the sources of this silver, a team led by Dr Jane Kershaw of the University of Oxford and involving researchers from the British Geological Survey examined geochemical information obtained from lead (Pb) isotope ratios and trace elements. It is known that the Vikings amassed silver and other precious metal ‘loot’ during their raids in western Europe, and they also established long-distance trade networks reaching as far as the Islamic Caliphate, along which they traded furs and slaves in exchange for silver coins known as dirhams. The relative importance of these sources of silver, however, was less clear.
The team used Pb isotope results to divide the Bedale artefacts into two groups. One comprised 14 objects which appear to have undergone cupellation – a refining process in which lead is added to precious metals and heated to extreme temperatures in order to remove non-noble metals. The other comprised 22 objects which had not been treated in this way. For elemental analysis, the team used both portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Tiny samples of material were also taken by drilling and analysed by multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS) in order to examine lead isotopes.
The results from these two analyses were then combined, revealing three different ‘sources’ for the refined (cupelled) silver. Among these objects, eight ingots and a ring are thought to have been refined using British lead and, based on the consistency of their isotope values, were probably cast at the same time. Because lead is added during the cupellation process, the original lead, which would point to the silver’s origin, is obscured. The team believe, however, that the source silver is unlikely to have come from the Islamic world as, during the 9th century, dirhams from this region were naturally low in gold and higher in bismuth. Carolingian and Anglo-Saxon coins, on the other hand, underwent a traceable change in gold content over the course of the 9th century. Early in the century, the coinage had low levels of gold which then steadily increased over the next 100 years, with the highest gold-to-silver ratios occurring after Alfred the Great’s coin reform in AD 875. The gold content in the eight items mentioned above is consistent with coins minted in western Europe during the mid- to late 9th century, which would have needed refining in order to raise their low silver content to acceptable levels.
The second set of objects made from refined silver – consisting of two neck-rings and an ingot – appears to have used lead from Melle in France (see CA 347, CA 411, and CA 412). Once again, the trace elements results are so similar that all three items were probably refined in the same location. This group also had gold and bismuth values that were more consistent with silver from Europe and particularly from Carolingian coinage of the mid-9th century. The last group of refined silver objects – two ingots – had Pb isotope ratios suggesting that they were made from a mixture of silver refined using British lead and silver from an eastern source.
Regarding the non-refined silver, the study identified two primary sources: one in western Europe and one in the Islamic world. Three items – the arm-ring, the bossed penannular brooch, and one ingot – were made using solely western European silver. Intriguingly, their isotope ratios are consistent with silver from the Galloway Hoard, which was deposited near Balmaghie in the early 10th century (CA 376); although the two collections were buried over 100 miles apart, it may be that they had a shared silver stock. In contrast, nine ingots appear to have been made from recycled Islamic coins, with their isotope signature consistent with dirhams deposited in Gotland hoards throughout the 9th century. They are not isotopically similar to Samanid dirhams, however, which came to dominate Scandinavian coin stocks by the end of the 9th century, indicating that they were most likely cast before this date. The last group of objects – made up of six ingots, two neck-rings, and the neck collar – had results falling on a continuum between the two, suggesting that they were made from a mix of the two sources.
Overall, the majority of the silver appears to have come from western sources or was mixed with western silver. While it may be that this silver stock arrived through trade, the researchers argue that this was probably from the ‘loot’ acquired during Viking raids across northern Europe from the 840s onwards. The presence of nine ingots made of Islamic silver – probably cast in Scandinavia – nevertheless demonstrates that the Vikings did not only take wealth out of England, they also brought it in.
Text: Kathryn Krakowka / Image: York Museums Trust