Baseline characteristics of the participants
A total of 339 pregnant women were included in this study. By trimester, the majority (43.6%, n = 136) were in the second trimester, followed by the third trimester (37.5%, n = 117) and first trimester (18.9%, n = 59). The mean age (SD) was 26.1(5.5) years, the mean age (SD) at first sex was 17.8 (2.5) years and the mean age (SD) at first marriage was 20.3 (3.3) years. More than a third of the participants attained an ordinary level of education (33.6%, n = 113), and 28.0%(n = 94) and 20.62%(n = 68) attained an upper primary and tertiary level of education respectively. Most of the participants (89.7%, n = 304) were in union (married or cohabiting), were in a monogamous marriage (75.5%, n = 253) and employed (46%, n = 156). Furthermore, 38.5% (n = 130) of their partners attained a tertiary level of education, and 5.6%(n = 19) had a lower primary or no education. About half (56.7%; n = 190) of the participants ever used contraceptives, 8.3%(n = 28) were living with HIV and 42.4%(n = 143) of their partners take alcohol. The mean gestation age (SD; range) was 23.2 (9.0; 4–38) weeks, and the majority (88.3% (n = 294)) of respondents conceived of the desire of both husband and wife (Table 1).
Prevalence and types of IPV in pregnancy among women in Northern Uganda
Almost three in every four (73.2%) pregnant women in Northern Uganda experienced at least one form of IPV during the current pregnancy. The most common form of IPV in pregnancy was controlling behaviours by the male partner (61.9%, n = 210), followed by emotional violence (34.8%, n = 118), economic violence (29.5%, n = 100), and sexual violence (28.9%, n = 98). Meanwhile, physical violence (16.2%, n = 55) was the least common form of violence during pregnancy (Table 2).
Determinants of IPV in pregnancy among women in Northern Uganda
At the univariate level, factors associated with IPV in pregnancy were being in a polygyny marriage (uPR: 1.2, 95% CI: 1.07–1.36, p = 0.002), partner not employed (uPR: 1.2: 95% CI: 1.04–1.35, p = 0.009), pregnancy being unwanted by either or both partner (uPR: 1.3, 95% CI: 0.85–1.10, p < 0.0001), having poor (uPR: 1.6, 95% CI: 1.36–1.94, p < 0.0001) or good (uPR: 1.3, 95% CI: 1.03–1.53, p = 0.022) versus perfect relationship with the husband’s family, week of amenorrhea (uPR: 1.01, 95% CI: 1.003–1.02, p = 0.008), participant’s age (cPR: 0.98, 95% CI: 0.96–0.99, p = 0.002), participant’s age at first sex (uPR: 0.95, 95% CI: 0.92–0.97, p < 0.0001), and participant’s age at first marriage (uPR: 0.97, 95% CI:0.95–0.99, p = 0.005) (Table 3).
After adjusting for being in a union, being in a polygynous marriage (aPR: 1.2, 95% CI: 1.03–1.31, p = 0.013), having poor (aPR: 1.6, 95% CI: 1.32–1.89, p < 0.0001) or good (aPR: 1.2, 95% CI: 1.03–1.51, p = 0.026) versus perfect relationship with the husband’s family, week of amenorrhea (aPR: 1.01, 95% CI: 1.003–1.02, p = 0.006), and maternal age (aPR: 0.98, 95% CI: 0.97–0.99, p = 0.003), all remained independently associated with IPV in pregnancy (Table 4).