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A new study published in the Journal of Psychopharmacology has found that MDMA’s mood-enhancing effects may be partly driven by changes in brain systems related to serotonin, oxytocin, and vasopressin—neurochemical pathways that are involved in emotional and social behavior. The results support the growing interest in MDMA as a possible treatment for mental health conditions.

MDMA, commonly known as ecstasy, is a synthetic stimulant with both energizing and hallucinogenic properties. In recent years, researchers have been exploring whether MDMA can be used in controlled therapeutic settings to help people with conditions like post-traumatic stress disorder or social anxiety. Its ability to reduce fear and increase feelings of connection makes it especially promising for patients who struggle with interpersonal difficulties. However, scientists still know relatively little about how MDMA produces these effects in the brain, or how these effects vary depending on dosage.

To explore these questions, researchers from the Medical University of Lublin and the International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology in Poland tested the effects of MDMA on 3-week-old zebrafish. This developmental stage is roughly equivalent to adolescence in humans and represents a time when social behaviors are emerging and brain systems involved in emotion are still developing.

Zebrafish are small freshwater fish native to South Asia that have become widely used in biomedical research. They develop rapidly, are transparent in early stages, and share a high degree of genetic and physiological similarity with humans. Because their brains contain many of the same neurotransmitter systems as mammals, and their behavior can be easily observed and quantified, zebrafish are especially valuable for studying brain development, drug effects, and psychiatric disorders.

The researchers were particularly interested in how MDMA influences anxiety and sociability, and whether these effects could be linked to oxytocin—a hormone involved in social bonding and emotional regulation.

The scientists conducted several behavioral tests to assess anxiety and social behavior in the zebrafish. One test measured how closely the fish stuck to the edges of a new environment—a behavior known as thigmotaxis, which is often used as an indicator of anxiety in animals. Another test evaluated how much time the fish spent in a light versus dark area, since zebrafish tend to avoid darkness when they feel safe. Finally, a social preference test measured whether the fish were more likely to spend time near familiar conspecifics, or members of their species.

The zebrafish were divided into groups and exposed to various concentrations of MDMA. They were also treated with either an oxytocin receptor agonist, which mimics the effects of oxytocin, or an antagonist, which blocks those effects. For comparison, some fish were given diazepam, a known anti-anxiety medication. After behavioral testing, the researchers examined the expression of several genes in the fish’s brains, looking at those related to serotonin signaling, oxytocin, and vasopressin. They also analyzed how MDMA affected specific intracellular pathways involved in mood and behavior, such as AKT and ERK1/2 signaling.

The researchers found that MDMA had a dose-dependent effect on anxiety. At very low doses, it appeared to increase anxiety-like behavior. But at moderate doses, particularly 2.5 micromolar, MDMA reduced signs of anxiety. Fish at this dose spent more time in the center of a new environment and were quicker to explore dark areas—both behaviors associated with lower anxiety. However, at higher doses, MDMA began to reduce locomotion and showed signs of possible toxicity, suggesting that the therapeutic range is narrow.

In terms of social behavior, the lowest dose of MDMA (0.5 micromolar) increased the time fish spent near their peers, suggesting enhanced sociability. Interestingly, this prosocial effect was most noticeable at doses that increased anxiety, indicating a complex relationship between emotional and social responses. The oxytocin receptor agonist also promoted social interaction and showed anti-anxiety effects, but only under certain conditions.

In contrast, the antagonist had no noticeable effect on behavior, which may indicate that blocking the oxytocin system is not enough on its own to alter emotional or social responses in zebrafish.

On the molecular level, MDMA exposure led to reduced expression of genes involved in serotonin signaling, including two types of serotonin receptors and the serotonin transporter. These changes may reflect the compound’s action on serotonin release, which is known to be one of MDMA’s main effects in the brain.

At the same time, MDMA increased the expression of genes for oxytocin receptors and reduced the expression of vasopressin receptor genes. While MDMA did not appear to increase actual oxytocin levels in the brain, the changes in receptor expression suggest that it may make brain regions more sensitive to oxytocin’s effects.

The researchers also found that different doses of MDMA affected specific signaling pathways in the brain. At the lowest tested dose, MDMA reduced activation of the AKT pathway, which has been linked to social behavior in other animals. The oxytocin agonist, on the other hand, increased activity in the ERK1/2 pathway, which is known to be involved in anxiety regulation. These findings suggest that different aspects of MDMA’s effects—its influence on anxiety versus social behavior—may be driven by distinct biological mechanisms.

As with any study, there are caveats to consider. Most importantly, the study was conducted in zebrafish, whose brains are simpler than those of mammals and lack some structures found in humans. Although zebrafish share many of the same neurotransmitter systems and genetic pathways, findings in fish may not always translate directly to human biology. Additionally, the study only looked at the short-term effects of MDMA, and more work is needed to understand how repeated or long-term exposure might influence behavior or brain function.

Future research could build on these findings by examining how MDMA affects brain circuits at different developmental stages or by testing how the compound interacts with stress. The researchers also suggested that genetic tools such as CRISPR could be used to further investigate the role of specific receptors in mediating MDMA’s effects. As scientists work toward better treatments for conditions like social anxiety and post-traumatic stress, studies like this one offer a window into how compounds like MDMA could be used not just as recreational drugs, but as tools for healing.

The study, “Exploring the impact of MDMA and oxytocin ligands on anxiety and social responses: A comprehensive behavioural and molecular study in the zebrafish model,” was authored by Monika Maciag, Olga Doszyn, Artur Wnorowski, Justyna Zmorzynska, and Barbara Budzynska.

Prolonged emergency department (ED) length of stays and boarding times for older adults significantly increased between 2017 and 2024, highlighting systemic challenges for hospitals across the US, according to a research letter published in JAMA Internal Medicine.¹

The researchers noted that extended ED stays in older adults are associated with a higher risk of adverse events, such as mortality and delirium, as well as treatment delays, worse patient experiences, and loss of privacy. To improve care for this population, CMS implemented the Age-Friendly Hospital Measure in January 2025.²

This policy requires hospitals to limit total ED length of stay to under 8 hours and ensure admission to occur within 3 hours of the decision to admit. However, national data on these measures have been lacking.¹ To address this gap, the researchers conducted a cross-sectional study to establish national benchmarks.

Using the Epic Cosmos health records database, which includes data from 1633 hospitals, 295 million patients, and 78 million admissions, they analyzed ED encounters from January 2017 to December 2024.³ They focused on 2 key metrics for patients aged 65 and older, namely the proportion with an ED length of stay over 8 hours and the proportion of admitted patients waiting more than 3 hours from bed request to admission.¹

In 2017, 12% of 4,564,359 ED encounters involved a length of stay over 8 hours. By 2024, this rose to 20% of 12,392,737 encounters. The largest increase occurred in academic hospitals, where prolonged stays grew from 22% of 1,787,179 encounters in 2017 to 36% of 4,311,417 encounters in 2024.

During the same period, boarding times over 3 hours increased from 22% of 1,787,179 encounters in 2017 to 36% of 4,311,417 encounters in 2024. Again, the largest increase was seen in academic hospitals, where boarding rose from 31% in 2017 to 45% in 2024.

Trend analyses showed small annual increases in both measures from 2017 to 2020 (length of stay, 1.1% [95% CI, 0.6-1.6]; boarding, 2.8% [95% CI, 1.5-4.0]), followed by sharper rises from 2020 to 2022 during the COVID-19 pandemic (length of stay, 4.2% [95% CI, 1.7-6.7]; boarding, 6.1% [95% CI, 2.5-9.8]). In contrast, from 2022 to 2024, both trends slightly declined (length of stay, –1.7% [95% CI, –2.3 to –1.1]; boarding, –3.2% [95% CI, –4.5 to –1.9]).

Although further investigation is needed, the researchers suggested the increases may be driven by growing patient complexity, increased demand, and ongoing staffing and resource shortages.

Lastly, they acknowledged the study’s limitations, one being that Epic overrepresents larger and academic hospitals. Also, not all hospitals that use Epic contribute to Cosmos. Despite this, the researchers expressed confidence in their findings and emphasized the need to address the declining ED experience for older US adults.

“Worsening ED LOSs [lengths of stay] and boarding contribute to ED crowding, reflect systemic health care dysfunction, and, most importantly, harm individual patients,” the authors concluded. “Addressing these trends is critical to safeguarding both the health of older adults and the health systems caring for them.”

References

1. Haimovich AD, Berry SD, Landon BE. Prolonged emergency department stays for older US adults. JAMA Intern Med. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2025.2006
2. FY 2025 hospital inpatient prospective payment system (IPPS) and long-term care hospital prospective payment system (LTCH PPS) proposed rule—CMS-1808-P fact sheet. CMS. April 10, 2024. Accessed June 30, 2025. https://www.cms.gov/newsroom/fact-sheets/fy-2025-hospital-inpatient-prospective-payment-system-ipps-and-long-term-care-hospital-prospective
3. Fast facts on US hospitals, 2024. American Hospital Association. 2024. Accessed June 30, 2025. https://www.aha.org/system/files/media/file/2024/01/fast-facts-on-us-hospitals-2024-20240112.pdf

Zucchini, a versatile and delicious summer squash, has quickly risen to the top of shopping lists for eaters everywhere. Whether spiralized into zoodles or baked into bread, zucchini is a nutrient-packed vegetable that offers numerous benefits—from heart health to eye health to digestion. But what actually happens to your body when you make zucchini a regular part of your diet? Whether you’re a zucchini lover or new to this vibrant green squash, keep reading to discover why this veggie deserves a permanent spot in your diet. 

Why We Love Zucchini

May Keep Your Digestive System Regular

Zucchini is loaded with dietary fiber, especially in its skin, making it great for promoting healthy digestion. Fiber adds bulk to stool, which can improve bowel regularity and support overall gut health. “Zucchini’s fiber and water content can help soften stool and prevent constipation, while also feeding beneficial gut bacteria,” says Samantha DeVito, M.S., RD.

Supports Hydration

By including zucchini in your meals, you not only enjoy its delicious taste but also help your body meet its daily hydration needs in a natural and refreshing way. “Zucchini is about 95% water,” says Amanda Godman, M.S., RD, CDN. “This delicious vegetable can actually help prevent dehydration. It’s a great choice especially in the warmer summer months (zucchini is actually a summer squash)!” Proper hydration is essential for maintaining energy levels, regulating body temperature, and supporting various bodily functions. 

Delivers Antioxidants

Zucchini is rich in antioxidants, which help protect your cells from damage caused by harmful free radicals. Free radicals occur through natural bodily processes but can also be compounded by exposure to smoke, pollution or an unhealthy diet. When free radicals build up, they can lead to oxidative stress—a process linked to chronic diseases. “You’ll also benefit from its antioxidants, like vitamin C and beta carotene, which help reduce inflammation and support immune health,” says Lisa Young, Ph.D., RDN. Including antioxidant-rich foods like zucchini in your diet may help strengthen your body’s defenses against conditions such as heart disease and certain cancers.

Promotes Heart Health

This humble vegetable is a heart-healthy choice due to its potassium content and low sodium levels. Potassium helps regulate blood pressure by counteracting the effects of sodium. “Zucchini is a heart-healthy powerhouse, rich in potassium and fiber, making it an excellent choice for supporting cardiovascular health,” says Toby Amidor, M.S., RD.

Supports Eye Health

The antioxidants in zucchini aren’t just good for your internal organs; they also benefit your eyes. “One medium zucchini contains 4,160 micrograms of lutein and zeaxanthin, carotenoids essential for eye health. Lutein and zeaxanthin accumulate in the retina, where they exert antioxidant properties to reduce eye damage from age-related macular degeneration,” says Amy Brownstein, M.S., RDN. 

Nutrition Information

Zucchini offers a wide range of essential nutrients that your body needs to thrive. Here’s what you can find in one small raw zucchini (about 100 grams): 

• Calories: 19
• Carbohydrates: 3 grams
• Dietary fiber: 1 gram
• Total sugars: 2.5 grams
• Added sugar: 0 grams
• Protein: 1 gram
• Total fat: 0.3 grams
• Saturated fat: 0 grams
• Cholesterol: 0 mg
• Sodium: 8 mg
• Vitamin C: 18 mg (20% Daily Value)
• Vitamin B6: 0.2 mg (10% DV)
• Potassium: 261 mg (6% DV)

Is Zucchini Safe for Everyone?

While zucchini is considered safe for most people, there are a few precautions to keep in mind. Zucchini is part of the Cucurbitaceae family—a group of vegetables that includes squash, pumpkins and cucumbers. If you have a known allergy to cucurbit vegetables, you should avoid zucchini. Additionally, zucchini contains compounds called cucurbitacins, which can sometimes impart a bitter taste. While rare, consuming overly bitter zucchini can lead to adverse side effects like stomachaches. To avoid this, ensure your zucchini tastes fresh before cooking or eating it.

For individuals on specific medications, such as diuretics or potassium-sparing drugs, it’s a good idea to consult with your health care provider before increasing your zucchini intake, as its potassium content might interact with your treatment.

4 Ways to Enjoy Zucchini

Zucchini can be enjoyed in countless ways. Here are some creative ideas:

• Make zoodles: Up your veggie intake by making spiralized zucchini noodles. You can top them with your favorite marinara or pesto for a delicious pasta-like meal.
• Grill or roast: Brush zucchini slices with olive oil, sprinkle with your favorite herbs, and grill or roast for an easy side dish.
• Bake it into bread or muffins: Add zucchini to your favorite quick bread or muffin recipe for a moist, nutrient-packed treat.
• Try stuffed zucchini boats: Hollow out zucchini halves, fill with a mixture of ground meat, vegetables and cheese, and bake until tender.

Our Expert Take

Zucchini offers several health benefits, from supporting eye health to boosting heart health. Its high water and fiber content can help keep your digestive system regular, while its antioxidants can help protect your cells from oxidative stress. Plus, it’s incredibly easy to incorporate into your diet, whether as a main dish, snack or side.

However, like any food, it’s important to listen to your body. Monitor for any adverse reactions if you’re trying zucchini for the first time, and ultimately enjoy it as part of a balanced, varied diet. With its many benefits and delicious versatility, there’s no reason not to make zucchini a regular addition to your meals.