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A new study from the University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus has upended decades of neuroscience dogma, revealing that dopamine, a neurotransmitter critical for movement, motivation, learning and mood, communicates in the brain with extraordinary precision, not broad diffusion as previously believed. This groundbreaking research offers fresh hope for millions of people living with dopamine-related disorders, marking a significant advance in the quest for precision-based neuroscience and medicine.

For years, scientists thought of dopamine as a kind of chemical “broadcast system,” flooding large areas of the brain to influence behavior. But new research, published today in Science, found that dopamine acts more like a finely-tuned postal service, delivering highly localized messages to specific nerve cell branches at exact moments in time.

Our current research found that dopamine signaling and transmission in the brain is much more complex than we thought. We knew that dopamine plays a role in many different behaviors, and our work gives the beginning of a framework for understanding how all those different behaviors could all be regulated by dopamine.”

Christopher Ford, PhD, Professor, University of Colorado School of Medicine and lead author

Using advanced microscopy techniques, researchers found that dopamine is released in concentrated hotspots which enable targeted, rapid responses in nearby brain cells, while broader signals activate slower, widespread effects. This dual signaling system allows dopamine to simultaneously fine-tune individual neural connections and orchestrate complex behaviors like movement, decision-making, and learning.

The implications are far-reaching. Dopamine system dysfunction plays a central role in a wide range of brain disorders, including Parkinson’s disease, addiction, schizophrenia, ADHD and depression. Current treatments largely focus on restoring overall dopamine levels but this research suggests that the precision of dopamine signaling may be just as crucial.

“We are really only at the tip of the iceberg in trying to understand how dysfunctions in dopamine contribute to diseases like Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia or addiction,” said Ford. “More work is needed to grasp how these specific changes in dopamine signaling are affected in these different neurological and psychiatric diseases. The goal, of course, would then be to build on those findings to come up with new and improved treatments for those disorders.”

Protein is a vital nutrient that supports almost every function in the human body. From maintaining muscles and skin to assisting in hormone and enzyme production, its importance cannot be overstated. A deficiency in protein, even a mild one, can have widespread effects on physical health, as per Healthline. Although severe deficiency is rare in developed countries, a low intake over time may still contribute to several health complications.

Swelling and Puffiness: A Sign of Edema

One of the most visible signs of severe protein deficiency is edema, which presents as swelling or puffiness, particularly in the skin. This occurs due to reduced levels of albumin, a blood protein responsible for maintaining fluid balance. When albumin is low, fluid escapes into tissues, causing noticeable swelling. Though this is more common in extreme cases such as kwashiorkor, it highlights how crucial protein is for fluid regulation.

Fat Accumulation in the Liver

Fatty liver is another issue linked to inadequate protein intake. In such cases, fat begins to build up in liver cells, potentially progressing to inflammation, scarring, or even liver failure. The exact mechanism isn’t fully understood, but it may involve disrupted fat transport processes and changes in the gut microbiome or cellular function.

Impact on Skin, Hair, and Nails

Protein also contributes to the health of skin, hair, and nails. Deficiency can result in brittle nails, thinning hair, or even conditions like telogen effluvium, where more hair enters the shedding phase. In severe cases, such as in children with kwashiorkor, the skin may show discoloration or peeling.

Loss of Muscle Mass and Strength

The body breaks down muscle tissue to compensate for low protein intake, leading to muscle wasting over time. This is particularly concerning in older adults, where even a moderate shortfall can accelerate muscle loss, known as sarcopenia. Experts recommend older individuals consume higher amounts of protein than the standard daily allowance to preserve muscle health.

Weakened Bones and Higher Fracture Risk

Bone strength is also influenced by protein. Studies show that individuals with higher protein intake tend to have better bone mineral density, particularly in the spine and hips. Over time, insufficient protein can contribute to weakened bones and a greater risk of fractures.

Stunted Growth in Children

Children are particularly vulnerable to protein deficiency. Inadequate intake can severely affect growth and development. Stunting, a condition where growth is restricted, affects millions of children worldwide and is often directly linked to malnutrition and lack of protein in the diet.

Increased Susceptibility to Infections

The immune system relies on protein to function properly. A lack of it can impair the production of antibodies, which are crucial for fighting infections. Some studies have found that individuals with higher protein intake experience fewer infections, particularly respiratory illnesses.

Increased Appetite and Calorie Intake

Low protein levels may also lead to increased hunger. The body’s effort to restore protein balance can result in heightened appetite, often leading to higher intake of calorie-dense foods rich in carbohydrates and fats. This imbalance can eventually contribute to weight gain and metabolic issues.

The recommended daily protein intake for adults is around 46 grams for women and between 52 to 56 grams for men. These numbers are considered minimums to prevent deficiency. However, those who are physically active or elderly may benefit from significantly higher intake—ranging from 0.6 to 0.9 grams per pound of body weight. In some cases, resistance training individuals may require up to 1.3 grams per pound.

While protein deficiency is rare in balanced diets, signs like fatigue, swelling, brittle nails, and muscle loss may indicate a problem. Identifying and addressing protein gaps in your diet can prevent long-term health issues. Including a variety of protein-rich foods such as eggs, dairy, legumes, lean meats, and soy can help maintain optimal health.

Among the more than 100 types of human papillomavirus (HPV), at least 14 are considered as ‘high-risk’ types which can cause (cervical) cancer. After breast cancer, cervical cancer is the most common cancer in Europe among women aged 15–44 years.

Before HPV vaccination among teenage girls started in Denmark, high-risk HPV was found in all cervical cancers. HPV types 16/18 accounted for around three quarters (74%) of cervical cancers. These two types are covered in the 4-valent HPV vaccine offered to girls since 2008 as well as the 9-valent vaccine which has been in use in Denmark since November 2017. One third (26%) of cervical cancers prior to the HPV immunisation campaign were caused by high-risk types that are not covered by the 2- and 4-valent vaccine.

In their research article published in Eurosurveillance, Nonboe et al. examined the HPV status of cervical samples over time among women (22–30 years) at screening age for cervical cancer who were vaccinated as girls.

They tested up to three consecutive cervical cell samples per participant provided by the contributing pathology departments in Denmark for HPV. In total, 17,252 women with at least one cervical cell sample were registered between 1 February 2017 and 29 February 2024. During the seven years of the randomised “Trial23” study (cervical cancer screening starts at age 23 in Denmark), 84% of women in the study had at least one cell sample taken. The authors compared HPV prevalence, persistence and incidence among vaccinated and unvaccinated women.

“Strong indication” of population immunity against high-risk HPV types 16 and 18

Based on the data gathered during the study period, HPV16/18 has been almost eliminated among vaccinated women in Denmark: prevalence of these two types in the samples decreased to < 1% in 2021 from 15–17% before vaccination of girls. In addition, prevalence of the types 16/18 in women who had not been vaccinated against HPV remained at 5% which, according to the authors, “strongly indicates population immunity”.

Despite the evidence of protection through vaccination, about one third of women screened during the study period still had HPV infection with high-risk HPV types not covered by the offered vaccines – and new infections with these types were more frequent in vaccinated than in unvaccinated women

There was a low prevalence of HPV16/18 during the 7-year study period and women who have been vaccinated against HPV as girls are expected to have a considerably lower risk of cervical cancer compared with previous generations. Therefore, the authors also assessed whether the current cervical screening strategies in the country could be adjusted accordingly or even stopped entirely.

The study results showed a remaining high prevalence of high-risk HPV infections in women that are not covered by the HPV vaccines and that had been detected both in vaccinated and unvaccinated women during the study period. At the same time, the authors noted a significantly higher incidence of non-vaccine high-risk HPV types among vaccinated women than in unvaccinated women.

Based on this, Nonboe et al. thus conclude that “less intensive screening seems reasonable until women vaccinated as girls with the 9-valent vaccine reach screening age, at which point screening should be reconsidered.”