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Hong Kong food and beverage market remains a dynamic and competitive hub, driven by tourism recovery, demand for quality and wellness products, and evolving e-commerce channels. Despite strong retail infrastructure and international brand appeal, traditional shopping habits and a concentrated grocery sector shape market dynamics.

Hong Kong’s food and beverage (F&B) market remains among the most liberal and competitive globally, supported by a free‑trade policy with zero customs tariffs or quotas, and minimal licensing requirements, although health certificates from countries of origin are encouraged. Its world-class infrastructure, advanced logistics, and bilingual (Cantonese/English) environment consolidate its status as Asia’s premier import, re‑export, and test‑marketing hub.

In 2024, total processed food and beverage exports (including re‑exports) reached approximately HK$46.5 billion (roughly US$5.9 billion) with re‑exports making up over 84 percent of this figure.

Meanwhile, tourism continues to fuel F&B demand: with about 44 million visitors registered in 2024, tourism-driven food and beverage consumption is still rebounding toward the 56 million-peak before the pandemic.

In this article, we explore Hong Kong’s evolving F&B market in depth, examining its segmentation, consumption and trade patterns, competitive dynamics, regulatory environment, and tailored strategies for foreign exporters.

Hong Kong’s F&B market overview

Hong Kong’s F&B sector continues to play a pivotal role in the city’s economy and trade structure, acting both as a consumer-driven market and a regional re-export hub.

In 2024, total imports of agricultural and related products into Hong Kong reached approximately US$24.1 billion, with consumer-oriented foods, which include both packaged and fresh products, making up the lion’s share at US$20.5 billion, marking a modest 2.1 percent year-on-year decline.

For overall imports of [specify product category, e.g. electronic goods / industrial products], the Chinese Mainland remains the dominant source, followed by Japan. The United States ranked as Hong Kong’s third-largest supplier in this segment, contributing around US$1.4 billion, or 6.7 percent of the total.

Among the most popular imported categories are seafood, fresh fruit, prepared foods, beef, non-alcoholic beverages, dairy, wine, poultry, pork, and baked goods.

Recent developments in 2025 paint a picture of cautious optimism. While the aftershocks of COVID-19 continue to influence consumer habits, foot traffic in physical retail spaces is steadily increasing. Tourist arrivals have seen a strong rebound, 21 million visitors were recorded in the first half of 2024, a 64 percent increase year-on-year, though the average length of stay and per-capita spending have yet to return to pre-pandemic levels.

Nevertheless, the influx of visitors is injecting fresh momentum into both food retail and foodservice segments, particularly in urban centers.

Hong Kong consumers, long known for their discerning tastes, remain highly attuned to quality and wellness trends. Survey data indicates that 64 percent of shoppers plan to spend more on fresh fruits and vegetables, while 49 percent intend to trade up on meat, and 47 percent are prioritizing organic foods. This shift reflects broader concerns over food safety, health, and sustainability. At the same time, the city’s e-commerce landscape (while growing) is still evolving within the F&B domain. Total online retail sales across all categories reached US$4.06 billion in 2024, down slightly from the previous year but still a substantial gain over pre-pandemic levels.

Yet e-commerce accounts for just 8.4 percent of Hong Kong’s total retail market—far below penetration rates in nearby Mainland China. This is largely due to Hong Kong’s compact geography, high store density, and consumer habits that favor daily or frequent in-person shopping.

Key market segments

Packaged foods form the core of the retail F&B offering.

This broad category includes snacks, canned and processed items, dairy products, bakery goods, ready meals, and frozen dim sum. These products are primarily distributed through supermarkets and convenience stores. Hong Kong consumers continue to show strong interest in healthier and organic options, as well as international specialties—such as Italian olive oil, French cheese, and Japanese sauces—particularly among middle-class urban buyers. The demand for convenience foods remains robust, driven by fast-paced lifestyles and small household sizes. Meanwhile, private-label and mid-range products often compete strongly in price, especially during economic slowdowns.

Beverages, both non-alcoholic and alcoholic, represent another high-volume and profitable segment. In the non-alcoholic space, bottled water, carbonated drinks, tea, coffee, juice, and dairy-based beverages are widely consumed. Multinational brands such as Coca‑Cola and PepsiCo enjoy wide distribution and brand recognition, while local producers (most notably Vitasoy) maintain a strong presence in the plant-based drink segment.

Alcoholic beverages, particularly imported wine, represent a smaller but lucrative portion of the F&B market. With no import duty on wine, Hong Kong is a regional wine trading hub, and consumers favor French, Italian, and Chilean vintages. Niche spirits and regional craft liquors are also gaining popularity. In contrast, distilled spirits over 30 percent ABV are subject to a 100 percent excise duty, which significantly impacts retail pricing

Distribution channels

On the distribution side, the modern retail grocery sector is highly concentrated. Two major conglomerates, namely, A.S. Watson Group (ParknShop) and Dairy Farm Group (Wellcome), control an estimated 75 to 85 percent of the supermarket segment.

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Convenience chains such as 7‑Eleven and Circle K are also widespread and cater to on-the-go consumption. While traditional wet markets and small grocers still operate across neighborhoods, particularly among older consumers seeking fresh, daily groceries, their overall market share has steadily declined. At the same time, e-commerce continues to grow, albeit from a relatively small base. Platforms like HKTVmall and the online channels of major supermarket chains now offer home delivery for both packaged and fresh foods.

This segment received a boost during the pandemic but remains limited, comprising roughly eight percent of total F&B sales in 2024.

Competitive landscape

Hong Kong’s F&B market is open, import-driven, and highly competitive. The city has negligible domestic agricultural output and only a limited food manufacturing base, meaning that most F&B products are imported, and international companies dominate the landscape.

Major global conglomerates, including Nestlé, Unilever, Kraft Heinz, and Mondelez, have a strong foothold, distributing through local subsidiaries or established networks. Similarly, beverage giants such as Coca‑Cola, PepsiCo, and Diageo maintain a deep presence through bottling plants, distribution partnerships, or direct retail branding. In retail aisles and foodservice outlets alike, imported goods dominate, from chocolates and cereals to carbonated beverages and frozen meats.

Regional exporters play a critical role. When looking specifically at food and beverage imports, the Chinese Mainland, Japan, Thailand, and Australia are among the top suppliers of specialty and staple goods, including fresh produce, meat, seafood, sauces, and processed foods, while European players focus on wine, olive oil, dairy, and gourmet items.

For food exporters, Hong Kong remains a strategic destination for high-value products such as beef, nuts, fruits, and prepared foods. The city also functions as a re-export hub for onward distribution into The Chinese Mainland and Southeast Asia.

On the retail front, new entrants are gaining ground. Japanese discount retailer Don Don Donki, known locally as Donki, has rapidly expanded by targeting younger and price-sensitive consumers with a curated mix of Japanese groceries, snacks, and lifestyle products. Meanwhile, local discount chains like 759 Store and Best Mart 360 have gained popularity by offering affordable imported goods. However, the two supermarket giants, ParknShop and Wellcome, continue to control shelf space, pricing strategy, and promotional visibility across the city.

Advantages, disadvantages, and entry strategy

A hallmark of the city’s trade regime is its zero-tariff policy on food and beverage imports, with no value-added tax (VAT) or sales tax applied at the consumer level. Hong Kong is also party to several free trade agreements, including the Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement (CEPA) with The Chinese Mainland and the ASEAN-Hong Kong Free Trade Agreement (AHKFTA), facilitating smoother regional supply chain operations.

Logistics and infrastructure are world-class. Hong Kong’s deepwater port and international airport are consistently ranked among the best globally, while integration with the Greater Bay Area (GBA) allows efficient cross-border trucking of chilled and frozen goods under temperature-controlled logistics schemes. This makes the city a natural re-export hub for goods entering southern China or Southeast Asia.

However, exporters should weigh the challenges of doing business in Hong Kong’s mature and cost-sensitive retail market. High operating costs, especially for real estate and labor, combine with tight retail margins, making price competitiveness essential.

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Meanwhile, trade shows and government agencies play a crucial role in facilitating new market entry. Events such as the HKTDC Food Expo and ProWine Hong Kong offer exposure to distributors, while public agencies like the Hong Kong Trade Development Council (HKTDC) and InvestHK provide support for overseas entrants. Import regulations are generally straightforward: there are no quotas or licensing requirements for most food items, except for alcohol and specific animal-derived products.

That said, foreign companies must ensure that packaging, labeling, and marketing strategies are adapted to local language and consumer expectations—and that products are fully compliant with Hong Kong’s food safety standards. For example, ingredient labels must be in English (Chinese is optional), and both English and Traditional Chinese signage are required on shelf displays and promotional materials. Fortunately, no special rules apply to genetically modified (GMO) foods—Hong Kong does not mandate biotech labeling.

Regarding entry strategy, Hong Kong is widely regarded as a strategic entry point to the broader Asia-Pacific region, offering a transparent, free-market environment and streamlined regulatory procedures. For new exporters, partnering with established importers or distributors remains the most common route to market.

Many brands also begin with wholesale consolidators, who bundle products from multiple suppliers for supermarket chains—especially useful given the relatively small order volumes typical of Hong Kong retailers. Other options include working through a local agent or setting up a representative office, though this usually requires more capital and operational planning.

For foreign F&B businesses, Hong Kong offers unique opportunities due to:

• Affluent, trend‑sensitive consumers: High per-capita income means many shoppers pay premiums for health, organic, gourmet and niche products. Categories like plant-based alternatives, functional foods, and Western staples (cheese, wine, olive oil) have growing demand. The city’s “cosmopolitan cuisine” culture encourages trial of novel products, from French pastries to Korean snacks.
• Tourism and retail tourism: Hong Kong’s retail sector benefits from duty-free status and shopping tourism. Mainland and international visitors are keen on local duty-free wine and boutique packaged foods. As tourism rebounds (projected 49 million visitors in 2025, a 10 percent increase from the previous year), in-store sales (supermarkets, specialty shops) and restaurants spend rise. This in turn creates an export market for international producers (via re-exports and store sales).
• Trading hub to Asia: Many exporters use Hong Kong as a regional base. From Hong Kong, products can be tested and then extended to Mainland China, Macao, and Southeast Asia. Hong Kong’s bilingual environment and western legal system also make it a familiar point of entry for US/EU firms.
• Niche markets (halal, organic, and more): Although the local Muslim population is small, Hong Kong’s businesses service the broader Asian Halal market. Similarly, organic and natural products have room to grow: local certifying bodies (for instance, the Hong Kong Food Center Certification) align with international standards. Sustainability is increasingly important, and foreign producers with eco-friendly packaging or ethically sourced ingredients can differentiate themselves.
• Innovation and e‑commerce: With smartphone penetration and logistics prowess, Hong Kong is a testbed for food tech. Cross-border e-commerce, mobile food delivery, and digital marketing (KOLs on WeChat/Instagram) are widely used. Foreign investors can partner with tech-savvy local firms to tap online channels.

Nevertheless, investors should be aware of intense competition, shifting demographics (rising Mainland Chinese influence in consumer tastes), and the need to localize. Still, Hong Kong’s legal transparency, free trade regime, and high consumer spending make it a viable launchpad for packaged food and beverage brands targeting Asia.

Trends to watch in Hong Kong’s F&B industry

In late 2024, Hong Kong’s F&B industry regained momentum, though the pace of recovery remains measured. Visitor numbers climbed steadily—over 36 million tourists arrived by October 2024, according to the Hong Kong Tourism Board—surpassing the full-year figure for 2023 and injecting much-needed energy into the city’s hospitality and service sectors. Alongside this rebound in foot traffic, new F&B openings, major cultural events, and a broader shift in consumer values are converging to shape the next phase of growth.

In conversations across the sector, several recurring themes are emerging—pointing to a market that is becoming more values-driven, experimental, and community-oriented. Below are some of the key trends likely to define Hong Kong’s F&B landscape in 2025.

The new role of sustainability

Sustainability is no longer a trend—it is fast becoming a baseline expectation. Consumers are increasingly placing weight on how businesses source, serve, and manage their operations. This shift is reflected in more visible and practical applications across the F&B ecosystem, from local sourcing and zero-waste kitchens to packaging choices and resource-efficient fit-outs.

Beyond consumer-facing decisions, sustainability is influencing how investors and operators allocate capital. There is a growing preference for long-term, ESG-aligned strategies over short-term spectacle. Energy-efficient systems, transparent supply chains, and circular design principles are moving from optional to essential. In this sense, Hong Kong’s F&B sector is aligning more closely with global trends, while tailoring them to local constraints—such as high rents and limited storage capacity.

Wellness on the menu: Low and no-ABV beverages

The rise of low- and no-alcohol drinks is one of the most notable shifts in consumer behavior over the past year. What began as a niche movement has now entered the mainstream, driven by a growing wellness culture and changing lifestyle preferences. Whether it is sophisticated mocktails, non-alcoholic craft beers, or low-ABV cocktails, these offerings are increasingly in demand—particularly among younger consumers and health-conscious urbanites.

This shift opens the door for product innovation and partnership opportunities. Beverage brands looking to enter the Hong Kong market may find success by aligning with venues that prioritize experience over intoxication—cafés, day bars, and lifestyle-oriented restaurants that seek to diversify their beverage menus without compromising on flavor or aesthetics.

Casual concepts, community roots

Fine dining still holds its place in Hong Kong, but the energy in 2024 is clearly gravitating toward more casual, community-focused concepts. New openings increasingly emphasize approachability, storytelling, and versatility. Consumers are seeking out spaces that feel welcoming and authentic—venues that double as neighborhood hubs, cultural meeting points, or creative platforms.

This movement is as much about design as it is about menu. Smaller footprints, flexible layouts, and hybrid formats (such as bar-bistros, bakery-bars, and chef-led street food) are gaining traction. Operators are investing more in atmosphere and ethos than in formality, building brands that feel personal and adaptive to shifting tastes.

Global exchange and culinary crossovers

One of the most promising signs of recovery is the return of global collaborations and cross-market exchanges. Culinary events—ranging from international pop-ups to chef collaborations—are re-establishing Hong Kong’s role as a regional tastemaker. These crossovers serve multiple functions: expanding brand visibility, sharing techniques, and deepening consumer engagement across borders.

As international travel resumes more fully, the city’s connectivity is once again becoming a major asset. For global F&B brands, importers, and investors, Hong Kong offers not only a mature and competitive market, but also a launchpad for reaching wider Asia-Pacific audiences.

Key takeaways

Hong Kong relies on imports for around 95 percent of its food supply, making it a critical destination for global exporters. Despite modest declines in import volumes in 2023, demand remains resilient across key categories like meat, seafood, dairy, and packaged goods. Retail food sales are stabilizing, with supermarkets accounting for about 60 percent of the segment, while traditional wet markets and convenience stores continue to serve local, price-sensitive consumers. Although e-commerce is growing, currently representing around 8 percent of total retail, it remains a secondary channel due to Hong Kong’s dense urban layout and ingrained in-store shopping culture.

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Market access is relatively straightforward thanks to Hong Kong’s free trade environment, clear labeling rules, and established infrastructure. Foreign brands typically enter by partnering with major supermarket chains like ParknShop and Wellcome, which dominate modern retail distribution. Engaging local distributors or consolidators is a common strategy, particularly for new entrants navigating tight margins and intense competition. While U.S. and European brands benefit from strong reputations for quality, they must compete with increasingly competitive regional suppliers from Japan, Thailand, and Vietnam, many of whom offer greater price flexibility.

Looking ahead, opportunities lie in aligning with evolving consumer preferences—particularly in health, sustainability, and convenience. Premium categories such as organic snacks, functional beverages, and plant-based products are gaining traction, and Hong Kong’s role as a re-export and logistics hub positions it as a strategic platform for scaling into the Greater Bay Area and beyond.

The Capital Development Authority (CDA) has introduced real-time tracking of electric and metro buses on Google Maps through its newly integrated CDA Mobile App.

The initiative allows passengers to view bus routes, stops, and schedules directly on their smartphones, offering accurate guidance, time-saving features, and easier travel options across Islamabad and Rawalpindi.

According to CDA officials, the system covers both the electric bus feeder routes and the entire metro bus network.

Electric buses, launched in July 2024, currently operate on 13 feeder routes, including services from Faizabad to NUST, PIMS to Bari Imam, Police Lines to D-12, Abpara to Tramri, and several others. Weekend tourist routes also run from PIMS to Daman-e-Koh and Shakarparian, making public transport accessible to scenic points in the capital.

The Metro Bus Service, which has expanded over the years, is also part of the integration.

The Red Line operates between Saddar and Pak Secretariat, while the Orange Line connects Peshawar Mor to Islamabad International Airport. The Green Line runs from Bhara Kahu to PIMS, the Blue Line links Gulberg with Faizabad, and the Purple Line connects Taramri with Aabpara. Together, these routes form the backbone of Islamabad’s mass transit network.

With the new integration, commuters can now track real-time bus arrivals and departures, identify nearest stops, and plan their journeys more efficiently using Google Maps. The initiative is expected to not only improve passenger convenience but also encourage greater use of public transport, reducing traffic congestion and environmental pollution in the federal capital.

The CDA Mobile App is available for download on both Android and iOS platforms. Passengers can access the service through the Google Play Store and the Apple App Store, ensuring seamless navigation and an improved commuting experience.

India’s top energy firms are advocating for nuclear power to decarbonize the world’s third-biggest emitter, while cautioning that electricity from reactors needs to be affordable to substitute coal.

“Nuclear can’t just be a fashion statement,” Praveer Sinha, chief executive officer at Tata Power Co., said at the BNEF Summit in New Delhi. “It needs to replace coal-based power as a source of affordable power.”

Airblue, one of Pakistan’s leading private airlines, has announced walk-in interviews for the recruitment of new cabin crew members in Faisalabad. The hiring drive is part of the airline’s ongoing efforts to expand its team and provide better travel experiences for passengers.

According to details, candidates from Faisalabad and nearby areas are encouraged to participate in the walk-in interviews. Although the recruitment will take place in Faisalabad, successful applicants will be based in Lahore.

Airblue has highlighted that the airline offers attractive salary packages along with travel benefits for its cabin crew members.

Interested candidates can apply online at www.airblue.com/jobs to complete the initial registration process before attending the interviews.

With this hiring initiative, Airblue continues to create employment opportunities for young professionals in Pakistan’s aviation sector while ensuring high standards of service onboard.

Pakistan’s automobile industry is entering a new era as multi-billion-dollar investments flow into the electric vehicle (EV) sector.

According to sources, the Auto Policy 2021-26 has opened new avenues for investment, production, and exports, attracting leading international brands to establish manufacturing plants in the country.

Global auto giants, including Hyundai, MG, and Changan, are shifting their focus toward electric technology in Pakistan. The sector already contributes around 7 percent to the national economy, with a consistent upward trend in exports. Industry insiders believe that sustained policies have instilled confidence in global players regarding Pakistan’s market potential.

Chinese electric vehicle leader BYD has announced plans to set up a production plant in Karachi. The facility is expected to commence operations in 2026, with an annual production capacity of 25,000 vehicles. BYD aims to capture 30 to 35 percent of Pakistan’s EV market share, while experts predict that by 2030, nearly 30 percent of vehicles in the country could be electric.

Government initiatives are further accelerating the transition, including a 45 percent reduction in charging tariffs for EVs. Market analysts project that the size of Pakistan’s EV market could triple or quadruple by 2025. In parallel, Pakistan’s export sector has recorded significant achievements, including the export of over 10,000 cars in 2023, marking a 20 percent increase compared to the previous year.

The country is also making strides in related industries. Master Changan made history by exporting cars from Pakistan for the first time. Annual tractor exports to Central Asia and African nations now stand at $40 to $50 million, while battery exports have reached $30 million. Additionally, Pakistan has exported 800,000 tons of raw iron for the first time, and discussions with Russia are underway for the revival of steel mills to enable finished steel exports.

The aims of this study were (1) understanding the contextual factors influencing health outcomes in heat-exposed outdoor workers, (2) identifying key mechanisms and linking these factors with (3) wearable device-based intervention outcomes. Based on these results, we aimed to propose an explanatory intervention model for wearable usage in heat-exposed outdoor workers. A scoping review was conducted to identify relevant studies on heat-exposed outdoor workers. Of the 410 studies initially screened, 19 studies were selected for an in-depth review. The different studies showed a diverse overview of wearable device-based interventions for heat-exposed outdoor workers with different methodological approaches, including all aspects of context-mechanism-outcome configurations.

Contextual factors

Several contextual factors emerged from the scoping review that contribute to the health risks of heat-exposed outdoor workers. Most studies primarily focused on male workers from labor-intensive industries like construction, agriculture, and groundwork. These outdoor workers often face compounded risks due to obesity, pre-existing health conditions, and a lack of sufficient health and safety measures on the job [37, 49]. These factors exacerbate the health risks associated with heat exposure [65]. The physiological strain imposed by working in high temperatures can lead to conditions such as heat stress, dehydration, heat exhaustion, and even heat stroke [66]. The most significant contributors to heat-related health issues are extreme temperatures in the work environments, combined with long working hours and strenuous physical tasks [12]. Outdoor workers, for example, farmworkers, often have limited access to cooling systems, shaded areas, and adequate hydration, exacerbating their vulnerability to heat illnesses [16, 50]. In addition to the inherent dangers of these environments, the limited access to health resources and the physical preconditions of the outdoor workers make it critical to explore effective intervention strategies emphasizing the need for tailored interventions in these vulnerable populations.

Pre-existing health conditions like obesity were highlighted as critical factors that make certain workers more prone to heat-related illnesses [37]. Thus, these individuals will benefit even more from wearable device-based interventions [49]. Regarding a previously reported high prevalence of obesity among construction workers (28%) in the USA [67,68,69] and overweight or obese farmworkers (81% of male workers and 76% of female workers) [70], this appears to be of particular relevance.

All the studies included were published in or after 2015. On the one hand, the introduction of wearable technology started around this time, for example, with personal activity trackers and the first Apple Watch in 2014 [71]. On the other hand, there was a growing interest in the effects of rising global temperatures, extreme weather, and climate change on worker health [72, 73]. Regarding regional differences, more than half of the studies were conducted in the USA. Almost one-third of the citizens in the USA used a wearable device in 2020 [74]. This underlines the higher establishment and distribution of wearables in high-income countries [75]. Furthermore, the adoption of health-monitoring technologies, such as wearable devices to measure heart rate and core body temperature, has been suggested to monitor worker health in real time. Nevertheless, the assessment of different intertwined biometrics is complex, and the devices were unreliable and less functional initially [76]. In a recent scoping review, the reliability and validity of wearables to monitor heat stress and strain were synthesized [38]. The authors reported an overestimation of temperature due to direct sunlight, overheating of the systems, and an all-beats detection failure or data loss due to movement, pressure, or not wearing the device tight enough [38, 77]. Wearables have become better at recording data over time. Nevertheless, direct validation or reliability testing of the devices in the outdoor work context is scarce [38]. Furthermore, considering contextual factors and mechanisms is becoming even more important in capturing usage and monitoring under certain circumstances. In accordance with the results of this scoping review, practical concerns such as the cost of these technologies, worker acceptance and compliance, and employer support were identified as barriers to widespread implementation [78,79,80].

Mechanisms

Worker involvement and awareness of environmental hazards were substantiated as underlying mechanisms of wearable device-based interventions. Workers should be actively involved in such programs, and their opinions and ideas should be collected, listened to, and implemented [81]. The high usefulness of monitored results was identified by surveys and interviews on workers’ feedback, needs, and perceptions of wearable technology [36, 55].

Moreover, the connection between hazard awareness and environmental health literacy was identified. Environmental health literacy, which refers to an individual’s ability to understand, evaluate, and use environmental health information to reduce risk and improve both personal and environmental health [82], is essential in creating safer work environments. The use of wearable sensors to report individually collected data, such as heat exposure and heart rate, has shown promise in improving environmental health literacy among outdoor workers. For instance, when ground maintenance workers were equipped with wearable devices, the graphically visualized temperature and heart rate data helped 94% of participants better understand the health risks associated with heat exposure [82]. To ensure the effectiveness of interventions, occupational health professionals must develop tailored strategies that address the unique challenges faced by workers with low environmental health literacy, language barriers, or inadequate safety measures [49] and consider the complexities of their work environments, such as varying climate conditions and the physical demands of labor [83].

Feedback to users and the determination of indicators of heat-related illness, including physiological measurements like heart rate and core body temperature, were identified as two additional key mechanisms for effective interventions. Feedback to users (e.g., real-time report-back visualizations) appeared to be a powerful mechanism to improve environmental health literacy and promote wearable device-based environmental monitoring [82]. Moreover, the value of a health parameter report-back, together with comparative benchmarks and an interpretative context, has been reported for a public health setting and described as helpful in raising environmental health literacy on environmental exposures [84, 85].

Outcomes

Three outcomes of wearable device-based interventions in outdoor workers could be identified: Healthy workplaces, action and adoption of health-promoting behavior, and technology use. The reviewed studies examined physiological outcomes such as core body temperature and heart rate in response to heat exposure. In a few studies, combined monitoring was performed using a multi-parameter monitoring wearable sensor measuring heart rate, breathing rate, skin temperature, and activity level [49]. Due to the correlation between heart rate and activity level, a combined evaluation is advisable. However, when using multi-parameter monitoring, it is important to consider how many parameters are recorded and ultimately reported back to the workers. An information overload can lead to excessive demands in already complex work situations [86]. However, these multi-component measurements reflect a holistic picture of the heat-exposed situation, which is currently poorly developed or lacking in the workplace [87].

Regarding technology use, data privacy is a consideration when deploying wearable sensors to monitor health outcomes. As these devices collect sensitive health information, there are risks related to unauthorized access and misuse of personal data. Ensuring that data is collected, stored, and processed in compliance with data privacy laws and regulations such as the General Data Protection Regulation is essential. Organizations must implement robust data protection measures and maintain transparency with users about how their data will be used and shared [88].

Despite the concerns regarding data privacy, there has been positive feedback regarding using multi-parameter monitoring wearable sensors. Users often report increased awareness of their physiological states, which can lead to better self-regulation and proactive measures to mitigate heat-related risks. For example, knowing their heart rate and body temperature can prompt users to take breaks, hydrate, or seek cooler environments, ultimately enhancing their safety and well-being [50, 60]. Several studies indicate that when users feel empowered by technology to manage their health, their overall satisfaction and engagement with the devices increase [89,90,91]. This feedback loop can foster a workplace culture of health and safety, encouraging employees to utilize these tools actively.

Developing the explanatory intervention model

Pre-existing and well-established models, frameworks, or theories were selected and discussed in an iterative process to design an explanatory intervention model [40, 92]. To address the mentioned context-mechanism-outcome configurations [40] of the research questions, the following three models were selected for the present study to cover (1) policy and practices for improving workplace health to capture the contextual factors (2), health promotion and natural hazards preparedness to address the mechanisms and outcomes in using wearables, and (3) technology acceptance and usage behavior to capture both contextual factors and the outcomes of wearables in heat-exposed outdoor workers:

1. 1)

   The WHO Healthy Workplace Model [81],

2. 2)

   The Precaution Adoption Process Model [93, 94],

3. 3)

   The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology [95].

In the following, these three models or theories are briefly explained to give a more detailed insight.

The WHO healthy workplace model

The WHO Healthy Workplace Model was developed to provide a holistic and flexible framework for creating healthy workplace programs in various countries, workplaces, and cultures [81]. The WHO Healthy Workplace Model is comprised of four large “avenues of influence” (i.e., the content of issues), contains a process of continuous improvement, and is guided by the two core principles of leadership and worker involvement [81]. The four “avenues of influence” have been designated: (1) physical work environment, (2) psychosocial work environment, (3) personal health resources, and (4) enterprise involvement in the community [81]. They represent specific areas employers and workers can influence to create a workplace that protects and promotes all workers’ health, safety, and well-being [81]. In the present scoping review, the first three “avenues of influence” were considered particularly relevant as plausible contextual factors and mechanisms for the explanatory intervention model:

1. 1)

   The physical work environment includes factors that may affect workers’ physical safety, (mental) health, and well-being, for example, physical hazards such as excessive heat. Means and ways to positively influence the physical work environment include, for instance, personal protective equipment, such as safety boots for construction workers, and training workers on safety procedures [81].

2. 2)

   The psychosocial work environment refers to organizational culture, attitudes, values, or daily practices that can affect workers’ mental and physical well-being. Workers may experience psychosocial hazards as mental stressors, for example, problems with work demands and time pressures [81]. Ways to influence these psychosocial hazards could be the reduction of workload by reallocation of work or flexibility in the timing or location of work [81].

3. 3)

   Personal health resources in the workplace are health services, information, or resources that aim to promote workers’ physical and mental health. Employers may enhance these personal health resources, for example, by providing medical services, including health assessments or medical surveillance [81]. Worker involvement deserves special attention due to its dependence on individual acceptance of and participation in effective, healthy workplace programs [81]. In the process of selecting and implementing wearable technology, worker involvement is likely to promote a positive user experience [96] and appears critical to the successful implementation of the new technology [97].

The precaution adoption process model

The Precaution Adoption Process Model [93, 94] is a health behavior model and well-established health promotion theory [98] and explains how individuals come to take action to prevent illness, injuries, or harm caused by external hazards and health threats [94, 98]. In this model, the process of adopting a new precaution or health-promotion behavior involves seven stages in which an individual may be: (1) unaware of potential health risks (2), unengaged (3), undecided about acting (4), decide not to act (5), decide to act by adopting a new precaution or behavior (6), act (7), maintain the protective behavior over time to mitigate health risks [94, 98]. The Precaution Adoption Process Model has previously been used to characterize technology adoption and describe behavioral responses to protective technologies in mine workers [98]. In that study, the Precaution Adoption Process Model has proven suitable for identifying barriers to technology acceptance and adopting protective behavior [98]. Therefore, the Precaution Adoption Process Model contributes important aspects of technology adoption to the explanatory intervention model of the present scoping review. In this context, unawareness (stage 1) of a health risk or necessary precaution behavior refers to heat stress and respective preventive measures. The transition from stage 1 “unaware” to one of the “decision-making” stages 2 to 7 may be supported by media messages specifically tailored towards hazards and precaution measures, but also by communication with significant others or personal experience of hazards [94]. In the context of wearable device-based interventions, stage 5) “decide to act” refers to the intention to use wearables as a preventive strategy against hazardous heat effects, while stage 6) “act” involves the actual use of wearables to support and guide preventive behaviors. If such behavior were repeated customarily, stage 7) “maintenance” would be achieved [94]. Outcomes of an intervention program depend on the various individual stages of program participants and may, therefore, vary accordingly regarding knowledge, skills, engagement, and readiness for healthy behavior [99, 100].

The unified theory of acceptance and use of technology

The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology [95] integrates elements from eight popular user acceptance models. It addresses the acceptance of technology as a precondition for the use of technology and thus serves as a well-established theory to explain and predict technology use [95]. In the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology, the behavioral intention to use new technology, i.e., wearable technology, is determined by the following preconditions: (1) performance expectancy, (2) effort expectancy, and (3) social influence. These preconditions for technology use determine both user acceptance and usage behavior of technology. Furthermore, the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology also incorporates age, gender, experience, and voluntariness of use as four moderating variables that affect the influence of the direct determinants of technology use behavior [95]. In the original study by Venkatesh et al. [95], a diverse population across various sectors, including healthcare, education, and business environments, was involved. This broad demographic allowed for a comprehensive analysis of how user characteristics interact with the model’s constructs, providing insights applicable to a wide range of technology adoption scenarios [95]. For instance, younger users may have different expectations regarding technology performance than older users, while gender may influence perceptions of the effort required to use technology effectively [95].

The explanatory intervention model

The explanatory intervention model (see Fig. 2) was developed based on the context-mechanism-outcome configurations identified in the scoping review. The included studies varied in their contribution to the context-mechanism-outcome configurations. Some offered rich contextual detail and plausible causal mechanisms (e.g., feedback systems, worker awareness), while others provided more limited or indirect insights. We considered this variation in the development of our intervention model and highlighted where assumptions were grounded in stronger theoretical contributions.

Contextual factors such as user characteristics, work environments, or preconditions of technology use were directly mapped to corresponding components in the model. Key mechanisms – like worker involvement or real-time feedback – emerged across the studies and were incorporated as central elements driving behavioral change and technology adoption. The model’s outcomes – behavioral adaptation, effective technology use, and healthy workplaces – reflect the aggregated findings of the reviewed interventions. Thus, the model synthesizes empirical insights from the literature into a structured framework for planning, implementing, and evaluating wearable device-based interventions for heat-exposed outdoor workers. Furthermore,

the various components extracted from the three mentioned models or theories enhanced the explanatory intervention model. Regarding contextual factors, (1) the aspects of user characteristics (e.g., age, gender, experience, and voluntariness of use), and (2) the preconditions of technology use (e.g., the size, weight, and robustness of sensor-based technology applications, the time investment and perceptibility of real-time feedback, and company commitment and regulations) were taken from the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology. Additionally, the “avenues of influence” [81] were considered particularly relevant as plausible contextual factors for the explanatory intervention model to examine the effectiveness of wearable device-based interventions in outdoor workers, therefore, (3) the physical and psychosocial work environments and (4) personal health resources were found as results in the present scoping review and taken as influencing factors from the WHO Healthy Workplace Model. Most studies addressed specific work environments (e.g., construction, agriculture, and groundwork) as an essential influence on effective wearable device-based interventions. They added the psychosocial climate of safety while using a wearable and reporting symptoms of heat-related illnesses. This is accompanied by the health resources and conditions at work, such as the availability of shade and drinking water in the fields [49].

To address key mechanisms, the following aspects were included: (1) the determination of indicators for heat-related illness, (2) feedback to users, (3) worker involvement (from the WHO Healthy Workplace Model), and (4) environmental health literacy with its component awareness of environmental hazards (from the Precaution Adoption Process Model). The definitions of indicators and the heat-related illness risk measured by temperature and heart rate are important mechanisms in monitoring and reporting reliable and valid parameters. These parameters are linked with user feedback (e.g., report-back packets of heart rate and temperature). Most workers perceived the report-back of monitored temperatures and heart rates as very useful and thus were willing to change their protective behavior [91]. Therefore, worker awareness of environmental hazards and environmental health literacy are combined in the explanatory model. Together with worker involvement (e.g., perceptions and attitudes toward using digital technology), they can be a protective mechanism in developing heat strain at work [37].

Finally, the following outcomes were added: (1) the action and adoption of health-promoting behavior (from the Precaution Adoption Process Model), (2) technology use (from the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology), and (3) healthy workplaces (from the WHO Healthy Workplace Model). Adopting health-promoting behaviors captures workers’ transition from awareness to actively implementing protective measures, such as staying hydrated or seeking shade. Technology use focuses on factors like ease of use, perceived usefulness, and trust in wearables, which are critical for ensuring consistent and effective device adoption. Together, these behaviors and technologies contribute to creating healthy workplaces where organizational culture and worker engagement foster sustained improvements in safety and well-being.

The spatial proximity of the factors in the model reflects their proximity in terms of content. In addition, the respective factors that are more likely to be related can be recognized on a horizontal visual axis. Exemplarily, physical, organizational, and social contextual factors include user characteristics and work environments under which outdoor workers operate. Indicators for heat-related illness serve as measurable mechanisms to identify when workers with specific user characteristics in a specific work environment are at risk of heat-related illness or when preventative actions should be triggered. For example, in a conducive work environment (e.g., a farming site or groundwork setting that offers shaded rest areas, portable cooling systems, or supportive policies like flexible work hours), workers with specific user characteristics (e.g., physical fitness levels, medical conditions such as heat sensitivity, or occupational roles like field laborers or machinery operators) wear advanced sensors that monitor their biometric data (e.g., body temperature, heart rate, physical activity, and hydration levels). These sensors provide real-time feedback on physiological metrics, visualizing the current status through clear indicators (e.g., green for safety, yellow for caution, and red for critical) and encouraging workers to adopt health-promoting behaviors, such as taking breaks, drinking water, or relocating to shaded areas. Additionally, based on this data, supervisors can dynamically adjust workloads, reassign tasks to cooler locations, or shift work hours to avoid peak heat, ensuring safety and optimizing productivity in physically demanding outdoor environments. Over time, these measures become ingrained as standard practices, reducing heat-related illnesses and fostering a culture of health promotion.

Strengths and limitations

One of the primary strengths of this scoping review is that it broadens the usability of findings by expanding the scope to include the context-mechanism-outcome configurations [40]. While Cannady et al. [38] focus in a recent scoping review on identifying relevant devices and their reliability and validity, we synthesize the integration of the context-mechanism-outcome configurations that enhance the adaptability of insights across different contexts. The two reviews are a perfect complement to finding out which wearables can be used for heat-exposed outdoor workers [38] and to understand the respective mechanisms and rationale of how and why specific mechanisms lead to certain outcomes in certain contexts. This ensures that our findings are not limited to a particular domain or scenario, making the model more versatile and applicable to a broader range of settings.

Another strength review is the proposal of an explanatory intervention model that provides insights at different levels. This approach offers a model that can be useful for understanding and planning complex wearable device-based interventions for heat-exposed outdoor workers. By incorporating various dimensions, the model allows for more nuanced strategies in real-world applications, enhancing its practical relevance.

However, several limitations must be acknowledged. First, while a scoping review was conducted to inform the model development, it was not entirely systematic. This methodological choice was made to provide a broad overview of the available evidence. Still, it may have resulted in the omission of some relevant studies, limiting the comprehensiveness of the review. Consequently, while the scoping review provides valuable insights, future work would benefit from a fully systematic review with clear research questions to ensure that all relevant literature is considered.

Second, the subjective interpretation of findings presents a potential source of bias. Although we have taken measures to ensure objectivity, including interpretations based on expert opinions or previous literature may lead to conclusions influenced by prior assumptions.

Third, one might argue that other theories and models could have been considered to generate an explanatory intervention model proposal. However, given the large number of models, frameworks, or theories potentially to be considered for the generation of the explanatory intervention model, there was a need for a pragmatic decision regarding the number of models, frameworks, or theories to be taken forward [40, 92]. While the proposed model offers substantial contributions by expanding the usability of findings and integrating different factors, the limitations regarding subjectivity and the non-systematic nature of the review should be addressed in future research to enhance the rigor and reliability of the findings.

Implications and future research directions

The findings from this scoping review offer valuable insights into the application of wearable technology for heat-exposed outdoor workers, particularly in the context of environmental health literacy [82] and precision prevention in occupational health [101]. The key question of context-mechanism-outcome configurations can be addressed by considering how such technology can enhance individual awareness, health behavior, and employer responsibility, particularly in high-risk outdoor environments. Real-time physiological and environmental monitoring can improve environmental health literacy, increase awareness of personal risk factors, such as heat stress, and enable timely preventive actions. This heightened awareness may contribute to better health outcomes as workers become more informed about how environmental conditions affect their well-being.

The use of wearable sensors aligns with the principles of precision prevention in occupational health [102] by tailoring interventions to individual workers’ needs and resources. By continuously monitoring physiological indicators (such as heart rate and body temperature) and environmental factors (such as ambient temperature), this technology allows for personalized preventive strategies. Workers can receive individualized feedback on their risk of heat-related illness, which can help them take appropriate preventive measures, such as adjusting their work intensity or hydrating.

Based on the findings, several practical recommendations can be delineated regarding the dissemination of information: Employers and workers should be made aware of the availability and usefulness of wearable-based technology for both physiological and environmental monitoring. Educational campaigns or targeted communications can help bridge knowledge gaps, ensuring that both parties understand the potential benefits of such technologies. Monitoring results from wearable devices need to be communicated understandably. This is essential to improve outdoor workers’ understanding and awareness of their individual heat exposure risk [55]. Simplified, user-friendly interfaces and regular feedback on heat exposure should be integrated into wearable systems to enhance workers’ ability to interpret and act on the data [36, 60, 61]. Outdoor workers should be equipped with wearable-based technology as part of their personal protective equipment [37]. Employers can incorporate these devices as a token of appreciation, reflecting a commitment to worker health and safety [49, 81]. This can foster a sense of value and responsibility, increasing worker engagement with preventive practices.

Further research and targeted actions will be essential to assess the usability of wearables and the acceptance regarding data privacy/ownership [36] while optimizing the deployment and effectiveness of these technologies. To further enhance the effectiveness of interventions, new study designs such as micro-randomized trials and just-in-time adaptive interventions should be considered. Micro-randomized trials allow for continuously adapting interventions in real time [103, 104]. By randomizing at the right decision-making time, micro-randomized trials can provide insights into the effectiveness of specific interventions (e.g., rest breaks or hydration prompts) under different conditions. This study design is particularly valuable for assessing how well wearable device-based interventions work in dynamic environments like outdoor workplaces, where heat exposure fluctuates throughout the day. Just-in-time adaptive interventions use a personalized, context-aware intervention model that delivers support exactly when needed. For outdoor workers, just-in-time adaptive interventions may provide timely notifications based on their physiological data (e.g., rising body temperature or heart rate) and environmental conditions (e.g., increased heat exposure). This approach ensures that interventions, such as reminders to hydrate or reduce physical activity, are provided at the right time, in the right place, to the right individual [105,106,107], they are most beneficial, minimizing the risk of heat stress for outdoor workers.

The Guardian has successfully defended a libel action brought by the actor Noel Clarke over an investigation by the newspaper in which he was accused of sexual misconduct by more than 20 women.

In a high court judgment handed down on Friday, Mrs Justice Steyn rejected Clarke’s claim. He had said the allegations set out in the Guardian’s investigation were false and that he had been the victim of an unlawful conspiracy.

Clarke, 49, had said he would seek £70m in damages if successful.

The Guardian relied on testimony from almost 30 people, 18 of whom gave accounts in court about their experiences of working with Clarke, a former star of Doctor Who.

Many said they had been directly affected by Clarke, while others said they had witnessed inappropriate behaviour.

The Guardian argued the allegations were true and that the articles and podcast about him were in the public interest.

The writer and producer of the Kidulthood trilogy sued Guardian News & Media (GNM) over seven articles and a podcast published between April 2021 and March 2022 in which more than 20 women accused him of sexual misconduct.

The allegations against Clarke were made up of the following elements:

• There were strong grounds to believe that over 15 years, he used his power to prey on and harass female colleagues.

• He sometimes bullied female colleagues.

• He engaged in unwanted sexual contact, kissing, touching or groping.

• He engaged in sexually inappropriate behaviour and comments.

• He was involved in professional misconduct.

• He took and shared explicit pictures and videos without consent, including secretly filming a young actor’s naked audition.

In closing submissions, Gavin Millar KC, for the Guardian, said Clarke had been forced to come up with an “elaborate conspiracy theory” to try to rebut the “overwhelming evidence” against him.

Clarke had been shown to be “precisely the man” depicted in the Guardian’s articles accusing him of sexual misconduct, vindicating its journalism, the high court heard.

The actor had denied all the allegations and variously claimed that his accusers were lying, embellishing incidents, motivated by grudges and that there was a conspiracy against him.

At the conclusion of the trial, Philip Williams, representing Clarke, argued that his client was the victim of an industry attempting a “purge” in the wake of the #MeToo movement. He highlighted the Benny Hill and Little Britain series and Carry On films as productions that would now be considered “inappropriate”, and said the treatment of Clarke “represents illiterate historical revisionism and completely ignores any nuance or context”.

Millar said Clarke had “made unpersuasive but revealing efforts to normalise and/or excuse conduct that most people would find – and would have found, whether 10 or 20 years ago – offensive and unacceptable”.

Steyn’s judgment means Clarke, who said his career had collapsed as a result of the articles, faces a hefty legal bill and may also be required to pay the bulk of the Guardian’s legal costs.

The trial was a rare case of #MeToo-type allegations published by a UK newspaper going to trial. A victory for Clarke would have been likely to make the press rethink future reporting on such issues.

After the publication of the Guardian’s first report on Clarke, Bafta suspended a lifetime achievement award that it had given him the previous week and ITV declined to broadcast the final episode of the thriller Viewpoint, in which he was starring.

Additionally, Sky cancelled the award-winning police show Bulletproof, which was created by and starred Clarke. He also left Unstoppable Film and TV, the production company he co-founded and which produced Bulletproof.