Air quality is a critical concern in society. The year 2025 marks a pivotal moment in monitoring the air we breathe with the launch of new European space capabilities, including advanced Copernicus Sentinels and EUMETSAT’s next generation of weather satellites, such as the Airbus-built MetOp-SG A. These new missions are set to increase data collection and significantly enhance air quality forecasts.
Understanding air quality
Every day, humans inhale 14kg of air, taking in essential oxygen alongside trace amounts of gases and microscopic particles. These harmful constituents can directly affect health and impact ecosystems, not only during acute pollution events but also through chronic exposure. According to the World Health Organization, air pollution is responsible for nearly 600,000 premature deaths each year in Europe, and approximately seven million globally.
Air pollution primarily originates from the burning of fossil fuels, road traffic, and industrial emissions.
Its severity is often exacerbated by temperature inversions, which trap pollutants close to the ground, particularly during winter. Natural factors, such as Saharan dust storms and wildfires, also significantly degrade air quality.
More than just a measure of household and ambient pollution, air quality is a vital indicator for our overall health. This underscores the critical importance of identifying and tracking these harmful particles and gases.
Challenges of air quality monitoring
Mélanie Ades, an expert in data assimilation at the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), explains the complexities: “Monitoring air quality is a real challenge. Pollutants can be rapidly transformed by chemical reactions and transported by wind, making it difficult to understand how pollution fluctuates throughout the day. Moreover, accurate forecasts require not only observations but also robust predictive capabilities”.
Alongside other scientists she works as part of the Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS), which uses state-of-the-art modelling systems to transform satellite observations into useful and free-to-use information for policymakers, environmental agencies and citizens around the world, enabling rapid action.
“To produce air quality forecasts, we rely on prediction models that understand how chemicals react, how winds carry pollutants and how other parameters like sunlight or temperature influence air quality. These models are the core of our forecasts. But to ensure they closely reflect reality, we constantly adjust them through a procedure called ‘data assimilation’. Every twelve hours we incorporate real-time measurements, comparing them with previous model forecasts. The model state is then updated and a new forecast is initiated. By constantly updating predictions with real-time data, we can provide a reliable picture of the air we breathe and make forecasts for up to five days,” says Ades.
Space-based data for air quality forecasts
CAMS currently leverages observational data from various Copernicus satellites. Sentinel-5P, designed and built by Airbus, provides observations of ozone, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide while Sentinel-3 provides observations of aerosol optical depth, which can be used to track the pollutants emitted from fires. Observations of active vegetation fires around the world from Sentinel-3 will also eventually be used in CAMS to estimate biomass burning emissions.
In May and June 2025, Canada experienced intense forest fires. CAMS effectively tracked and forecast the smoke plumes as they spread across the Atlantic, reaching Europe and coinciding with the transport of Saharan dust on 13 June.
Copyright: CAMS
CAMS also reported an episode of high ground-level ozone concentrations across Europe in June 2025. Ground-level ozone is a major air pollutant, particularly on sunny days. It forms through chemical reactions between nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) – gases emitted from cars, industries, and other sources – in the presence of sunlight. Unlike beneficial ozone in the upper atmosphere, ground-level ozone can damage human respiratory systems and vegetation.
Copyright: CAMS
Next generation of satellites to enhance capabilities
Launched in July 2025, the Airbus-built Sentinel-4 instrument on the third generation Meteosat (MTG-S1) satellite will be integrated into CAMS models. It will provide unprecedented hourly high-resolution data on atmospheric pollutants (ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide and aerosols) over Europe. This will enhance Copernicus’ monitoring capabilities, moving from one image of Europe per day with Sentinel-5P to hourly observations. “With this new instrument, we will be able to model the diurnal cycle of some pollutants and update our models more frequently,” says Ades.
European space-based capabilities will be further augmented by MetOp-SG A and its six instruments. The Airbus-built Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI-NG) is capable of monitoring ammonia which impacts air quality. While its onboard Sentinel-5 spectrometer, operated by EUMETSAT, will complement Sentinel-4. It can differentiate between 1,000 more colours than the human eye, detecting and measuring a host of trace gases, as well as aerosols and the UV index, on a daily basis.
Caption: Air monitoring Sentinel-4 and Sentinel-5 instruments
Enabling research and applications
The rich data from satellite observations and air quality forecasts are indispensable tools. They enable governments to alert the population when pollution levels exceed regulatory limits, to assist policymakers in developing effective air quality strategies and support scientists in refining climate models.
“CAMS analyses and forecasts can also be used directly by citizens or through smartphone applications such as Windy, which allows users to visualise air quality data for major air pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide and fine particulate matter,” explains Ades.
With their enhanced monitoring capabilities, more frequent updates and higher resolution data, the new generation of European satellites, equipped with their powerful instruments, represents an important leap, helping to deepen our understanding of atmospheric processes and to improve air quality forecasts.
The test tube carrying the Pakistan-origin wheat seeds was aboard the SpaceX Dragon Capsule, which was launched from Nasa’s Kennedy Space Centre on August 1.
Space, as all Trekkies agree, is the final frontier. It is mysterious, magnificent, mighty, and draws in earthlings who have long dreamed of exploring other worlds. In recent years, these dreams have crossed over from the realm of ambition to the reality of necessity. As billion-dollar companies and superpowers race toward the stars, a Pakistani engineer has crossed the Kármán line with nothing more than a handful of wheat seeds and a vision.
“As we speak, Pakistan-origin wheat seeds are on their way to space,” Mahhad Nayyar told Dawn.com. He and his colleague, Muhammad Haroon, successfully sent the first Pakistani payload to the International Space Station through the Kármán-Jaguar Earth Seeds for Space partnership.
The initiative brought together researchers and space leaders from four countries to explore how native crops respond to microgravity. Pakistan’s contribution, wheat seeds, was spearheaded by Mahhad.
Mahhad Nayyar works on the payload at Nasa’s Kennedy Space Centre before the launch.
The seeds took up one-quarter of the space in the test tube, equal to the Nigerian melon seeds, Armenian pomegranate seeds, and Egyptian cotton seeds. The test tube was aboard the SpaceX Dragon Capsule — mounted on a Falcon 9 rocket — which launched from Nasa’s Kennedy Space Centre in Florida, on August 1.
“I was quite literally living a dream,” Mahhad gleamed. “Watching the rocket fire up and blaze into the sky, leaving behind a trail of smoke … all of it happened just within a few minutes. For me, though, it was the experience of a lifetime.”
But the flight from land to space, one that the 34-year-old had dreamt of for years, was long and riddled with challenges.
How it started
As a young boy, Mahhad was obsessed with the boundless horizon above him. At the time, the only way he knew to explore the skies was through flying, and, in what he describes as “quintessential fashion”, the engineer joined PAF College Sargodha, where he underwent five years of training and subsequently joined the Pakistan Air Force.
“My aim was to become a fighter pilot, but I fell short due to my short-sightedness and was hence sent towards engineering by the PAF,” he recalled to Dawn.com. In 2009, Mahhad enrolled in the aeronautical engineering programme at the PAF College, Risalpur, during which he secured a scholarship at the US Air Force Academy.
This is where his life took a turn. Mahhad went to the States with the intention of studying aeronautical engineering, but came back as an astronautical engineer. “It was here that I found my love for space; when I controlled, monitored and designed satellites.” But he couldn’t explain it to the people around him when he came back home, who thought it was a subject far-fetched, one that “didn’t even have an office here”.
For the next few years, he served as a flight engineer for search and rescue helicopters during the day and volunteered for astronomical societies in the evenings. Meanwhile, Mahhad immersed himself in the world of astrodynamics — his nights were occupied by documentaries such as ‘Cosmos: A Personal Voyage’ and ‘Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey’.
“I fell in love with how vast the space is. I could see all the possibilities of what could be done there,” he reminisced. As years passed by, however, he couldn’t help but wonder how Pakistan was losing out on the vast potential of the cosmos.
His disappointment further grew when, in 2020, Mahhad came across a research paper featuring a world map of countries that had participated in initiatives with the ISS. One conspicuous gap was hard to ignore: Pakistan was the only one of the world’s 10 most populous countries to not have taken part.
The image stayed with him, almost as if it were imprinted in his mind. “I realised that in two and a half decades, we were unable to send an experiment into space, let alone an astronaut. This was a matter of shame to me.” He resolved to change this and bring to life the idea that space should be accessible and meaningful for everyone, not just a select few nations or industries.
So when in 2024 he came across the Kármán Project, he knew exactly what he needed to do.
A journey into space
Mahhad applied to become a pioneer for the project, named after the line 100km above the ground from where space begins. By this time, he had retired from the PAF and was pursuing a PhD from Purdue University in the US.
“I got an email from the Kármán Project one day, wherein they were seeking proposals for sending a free-of-cost experiment to space, so I drafted a proposal with the help of my colleague Haroon, who is currently studying botany at the same varsity as mine,” he said.
Their proposal, for sending wheat seeds to space, was among the four that were accepted from across the world. These seeds, once back on Earth, will be examined at length to see the changes they underwent while in space.
Mahhad Nayyar poses with colleagues at Nasa’s Kennedy Space Centre.
“For me, just the fact that a Pakistani experiment is going to space matters the most, and the fact that we are finally on the ISS map,” Mahhad remarked. For him, it is a matter of national pride and a call to future Pakistani scientists, astronauts and aerospace engineers that nothing is beyond their reach, not even space.
The pride Mahhad talks about, he felt it the most when he visited the Kennedy Space Centre last week for the launch, making sure to keep a neatly folded Pakistani flag with him.
Mahhad holds Pakistan’s flag at the Kennedy Space Centre.
But Mahhad kept his excitement at bay because he knew entering the centre could be a lengthy process. It involved a lot of paperwork, and more so in his case, because Pakistan fell under the strictest criteria. A Nasa escort accompanied him throughout the visit. “Once inside, I worked with my Armenian, Nigerian and Egyptian colleagues on the final work required for the payload,” he recalled.
After a day’s delay that triggered Mahhad’s anxiety, the SpaceX Dragon Capsule finally took off from the Kennedy Space Centre’s Space Systems Processing Facility at 11:43am Eastern Time (around 8:43pm in Pakistan) on Friday and docked at the International Space Station just 15 hours after the launch.
There were many thoughts racing in his mind at the time, those of childlike wonder and pure fascination. “A rocket is essentially a controlled explosion and to put human beings on top of that and launch them to another realm of existence is not only thrilling but also leaves you in awe of how far science and technology has come for the betterment of humans.”
The science
As grand and groundbreaking as the project was, at first glance, it may seem too simple. Why wheat seeds? Isn’t that too ordinary for a space mission?
“For us, wheat seeds were a strong candidate because they’re a staple food in Pakistan and other countries,” said Haroon, the collaborator on the payload. Elaborating on the same, Mahhad told Dawn.com that the cultural and dietary significance of wheat made it a powerful symbol of sustenance, resilience and everyday life.
“Scientifically, wheat is also a strong candidate for space agriculture due to its relatively short growth cycle, high nutritional value, and adaptability to controlled environments. As space agencies explore long-duration missions and potential off-world settlements, crops like wheat will be essential to support human life sustainably,” he explained.
The test tube that carried wheat seeds into space.
But most importantly, the crop serves as a bridge between nations, and while it has been studied in space before, this experiment focuses on a variety native to South Asia, cultivated in different climatic and soil conditions. Hence, both Mahhad and Haroon agreed that this could open the door to valuable comparative insights into genetic resilience and environmental adaptation under extreme conditions.
The scientific objective of the payload is to observe the effects of microgravity on the seeds. “One key focus will be on studying stomatal traits — the microscopic pores on the surface of leaves that regulate gas exchange and water loss. Stomata play a vital role in photosynthesis, respiration, and overall plant-water relations.
“By observing how these traits develop in a microgravity environment, we can better understand how space conditions may affect plant physiology at a structural and functional level. This could reveal critical insights into drought tolerance, water use efficiency, and stress adaptation,” Mahhad said.
Once the seeds come back to Earth, which is expected by the end of the month, they will be germinated under controlled conditions, and their physiological and anatomical traits will be studied.
The SpaceX Dragon Capsule after launch.
“We will identify beneficial traits related to drought tolerance concerning stomata so these seeds won’t require extra water and will be good for both space and land. For sure they will have effect from space which will help us understand how this physiology is different from when they were sent to space,” Haroon added.
Moreover, if these traits prove to be beneficial, they could inform future breeding programmes to develop cultivars that require less water and are ideal for regions like Pakistan that are facing water scarcity or extreme climate stress. “The insights from this space-based study may help design crops that are not space-resilient but also more sustainable for vulnerable ecosystems on Earth.”
Beyond the science
But for Mahhad, the true impact of the payload goes far beyond the science behind it. Working with wheat — a staple food for millions across the globe — creates an opportunity for Pakistan and gives it a chance to connect space exploration with daily life in a way that feels intimate and real.
“It will open doors for young Pakistanis to understand, discover and fall in love with space,” he said, expressing the hope that the mission is remembered as a gentle but lasting turning point — a moment when space became a little more accessible, a little more culturally grounded, and a lot more inclusive. This also comes at a time when Pakistan, in collaboration with China, plans to send its first manned space mission to the latter’s space station
Personally, though, for Mahhad, this is just the beginning for him. A PhD student at Purdue University, Mahhad’s research revolves around space situational awareness, and his study has brought him face to face with some hard realisations.
“Emerging space economies such as Pakistan have a maximum of five objects in space; we have been unable to use the space medium adequately. Now this is not just a question of scientific exploration but also that of fundamental human equity. With developed countries now exponentially populating space with their objects, the space for countries like ours is shrinking every day.”
Mahhad wants to change this, for which Pakistan’s strategic geographical location is his biggest asset. “It is one of the best sites for looking into space traffic, and this data can be sold globally,” he said.
The benefits are not just monetary. A person going about their usual day may not even realise but space plays a huge part in their lives — from enabling smooth communication to navigating through traffic (basically Google Maps) and monitoring the climate. The benefits are endless.
“But all of this can only come through with situational awareness of the space environment,” the engineer stressed. He believes that this can only happen when Pakistan starts investing in a space programme, where students in universities, schools and colleges are encouraged to develop, launch and monitor satellites.
And to play his part, the 34-year-old plans to build a virtual mentorship lab to turn his story into a conversation starter, ultimately encouraging more experiments from Pakistan in space.
To prove his point, the engineer quotes his favourite astrophysicist and writer, Neil deGrasse Tyson: “Recognise that the very molecules that make up your body, the atoms that construct the molecules, are traceable to the crucibles that were once the centres of high mass stars that exploded their chemically rich guts into the galaxy, enriching pristine gas clouds with the chemistry of life.
“So that we are all connected to each other biologically, to the earth chemically and to the rest of the universe atomically. That’s kinda cool! That makes me smile and I actually feel quite large at the end of that. It’s not that we are better than the universe, we are part of the universe. We are in the universe and the universe is in us.”
Header image: The payload of seeds sent to space. — all photos provided by Mahhad Nayyar
Researchers at Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, part of the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, have documented their use of a new RNA sequencing technology to uncover molecular drivers of cellular differentiation that could lead to better regenerative therapies.
In addition to being used in the lab, the technique, Rapid Precision Run-On Sequencing (rPRO-seq), has the potential to help doctors understand patients’ disease states and response to treatment in real time.
The findings appear in two published articles in Molecular Cell. The first paper was published on July 24th, 2025, and the second on August 7th, 2025.
We saw a major bottleneck in the field of nascent RNA profiling.”
Pradeep Kumar Reddy Cingaram, PhD, Study First Author and Assistant Scientist, Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami
“Existing methods, while powerful, are simply too slow and require large amounts of biological material. Imagine needing tens of millions of cells and several days just to get started-that immediately ruled out crucial research on rare cell types or precious patient biopsies,” he said.
Testing rPRO-Seq
In the first study, the team used rPRO-seq to study the role of a protein complex called Integrator in regulating gene expression, which was previously untraceable with nascent RNA sequencing.
“INTS11, the catalytic subunit of Integrator complex, was a compelling choice for us because we already knew it was a key player in gene regulation,” said Cingaram.
Using cellular reprogramming models to induce neuronal differentiation, they found that when INTS11 was removed from neuronal cells, gene activity tied to brain development changed dramatically. Genes that needed to be active in order to prevent neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders were deactivated when the scientists removed INTS11.
“rPRO-seq allowed us to pinpoint a critical role for the INTS11 protein as a regulator of genes involved in neurodevelopmental disorders in neuronal cells,” said Ramin Shiekhattar, Ph.D., senior author on both of the studies, co-leader of the Cancer Epigenetics Program at Sylvester and chief of the Division for Cancer Genomics and Epigenomics and the Eugenia J. Dodson Chair in Cancer Research.
The technique only required 12 hours and 5,000 cells. Existing technologies needed several days and millions of cells. Additionally, the scientists emphasize that rPRO-seq allowed them to understand not just when genes were turned on and off, but how. “That is, rPRO-seq allows mechanistic understanding of gene expression changes,” said Shiekhattar.
“Standard RNA sequencing looks at ‘steady-state’ RNA – the accumulation of what’s been made. It’s like seeing how many cars are on the road. But rPRO-seq reveals ‘nascent’ RNA – what’s being made right now. It’s like watching cars leave the factory. This gives us crucial, real-time insights into active gene transcription,” said Cingaram.
INTS11 in regenerative medicine
Next, the team used rPRO-seq to study the role that INTS11 plays in stem cells’ ability to differentiate into any kind of cell in the body, a characteristic called pluripotency. They found that the protein began playing a critical role in gene regulation as early as day two of embryonic development.
“This greatly expands our understanding of how pluripotency and differentiation are harmonized at the molecular level,” said Shiekhattar.
Using a lab model, they found that the Integrator complex binds and regulates critical genes for stem cell identity essential for maintaining pluripotency. Additionally, “the work is paradigm shifting as it places Integrator complex at the earliest steps in transcriptional cycle, known as ‘initiation,’ compelling a revision of current theories for transcriptional initiation,” said Shiekhattar.
While both findings regarding the role of INTS11 in early development are major steps in understanding cellular differentiation, the scientists point out that the rPRO-seq could be used for many more research and clinical purposes, such as sampling a tumor to see how it’s responding to therapy.
“We’re keen to apply rPRO-seq to a wider array of human clinical samples. This would allow us to validate its utility as a diagnostic or prognostic tool and potentially uncover novel, unstable RNA biomarkers that are currently invisible to existing technologies,” said Cingaram.
“Overall, rPRO-seq could emerge as a valuable tool for both research and clinical settings, expanding the scope of transcriptomic analyses and enabling more precise, individualized health care,” added Shiekhattar.
Source:
University of Miami Miller School of Medicine
Journal reference:
Cingaram, P. K. R., et al. (2025). Enhancing transcriptome mapping with rapid PRO-seq profiling of nascent RNA. Molecular Cell. doi.org/10.1016/j.molcel.2025.06.029
More than 200 volunteers have been involved in the three-week dig.
Multiple mammoth tusks have been found – such as this one from a baby – ready to be lifted.
A palaeontology dig – believed to be the biggest in the country, with more than 200 volunteers – has uncovered mammoth skulls, a 7ft (about 2.1m) tusk, evidence of Neanderthals and 160 million-year-old fossils.
The site at Cerney Wick in the Cotswolds is famous for the discovery of mammoth remains, with a David Attenborough documentary previously on the site.
This is the last time the team can investigate the area – which belongs to a quarry company – before it has to become a pond.
New species to science are believed to have been found in fossils, as well as potential ice age wolves, rhino and lion bones.
Kieran Mason is the archaeologist on site handling the finds linked to people – the Neanderthals
The site – which would once have been a river – has ice age remains from about 214,000 years ago but also fossils from about 160 million years ago.
While the site has yielded yet more mammoths, archaeologist Kieran Mason has been the one looking at the human side of it – namely, the flint tools discovered.
He explained that before the site was excavated, it had been questionable whether Neanderthals were living in the area at the time, but he said: “It’s clear evidence of Neanderthal. Modern human flint knapping is very different to Neanderthal techniques.”
“The fact we’re getting these artefacts in the same layer that we’re finding these bones that have been carbon dated is telling us there were people around, we just need to find a skeleton next.”
Bones from multiple huge ice age mammals have been found
Bones of other types of elephant aside from mammoth have been found too.
Some bones, such as those of big ice age horses, show the gnaw marks of hyenas.
Sally and Neville Hollingworth are the people who kicked if all off. They first noticed the significance of the area about eight years ago, when they spotted a mammoth bone sticking out of the ground when the owners, Hills Quarry Products, had just begun to dig a trench.
Since then, the company has had teams back a few times to gather finds.
“We have bison, rhino, the giant horse, a possible wolf vertebrae, evidence of hyena,” said Ms Hollingworth.
There is a lot more than just digging on site – bones and fossils have to be cleaned and preserved at the conservation tent, where the larger things that had to be carefully lifted, like the 7ft tusk and skull, are also covered in plaster to keep them safe.
One half of the site has been dedicated to finding Jurassic fossils
One hundred and sixty million years ago, the Cotswolds would have been underwater. The area of the dig site examining fossils is full of ammonites, but to the trained or enthusiast’s eye, there is a lot more in the rock.
Palaeontologist Richard Forrest is an expert in Jurassic marine reptiles and told the BBC the site had been “incredible” and they had been able to expand their knowledge of the area hugely.
That includes a possible 12 new species of invertebrate the team may have found as they comb through the finds.
Richard Forrest will be carefully going through a fossil of a baby Plesiosaur
The sea monsters Mr Forrest researches are somewhat more fierce than the ammonites – they have also found a baby Plesiosaur.
It would have been about 2m (about 6.6ft) long just as a juvenile.
He described it as a “snake threaded through a turtle. They effectively flew underwater, with two sets of flippers. No animal ever has hit that formula.”
They had very long necks too – the rock has parts of the bones sticking out, but Mr Forrest will need to do careful work to get it out.
“I use what’s called an air pen – like a miniature drill. They work at a minute level. I’ll do a lot of this under a microscope.”
Eric Downey is one of the volunteers and says it is one of the best places to dig in the UK
The dig has been a good opportunity for students and volunteers too – Mr Hollingworth explained that about 20 universities had had people involved, including internationally.
“We’ve been really lucky that we’ve a great big group of very enthusiastic volunteers and researchers,” he added – the numbers are what have made the dig so huge.
Attenborough and the Mammoth Graveyard
Volunteers have also come in from all backgrounds, a few being geologists.
Eric Downey is one of them – he is now office-based in his usual work, but jumped at the chance to “get his hands dirty”.
“This is the cream of the cream. This is one of the best places in the UK to come and dig. Everyone here is a volunteer. It just shows the passion,” he said.
“No-one has touched this thing since it was deposited thousand or millions of years ago. You are the first person to see this in modern times.”
Many volunteers have been camping beside the dig in the area nicknamed Mammothville for the three-week dig.
Sally and Neville say the experience has been an “incredible journey”
Mr and Ms Hollingworth, so passionate they have their own high-vis jackets with “Mammoth King” and “Mammoth Queen” printed, explained the site would soon become a silt pond and returned back to nature.
“Everything here will be locked away back into it’s very own time capsule,” said Mr Hollingworth.
For them, as the people who kicked it all off, there is more to it than finds.
“This has been an incredible journey. This site has held so many fabulous memories. It’s not just about the dig here. It’s passing on that legacy for the future,” added Ms Hollingworth.
This lovely double star at the head of Cygnus the Swan shows off contrasting colors, making it a summertime favorite.
Albireo (β Cygni), located in the constellation Cygnus, is a double star system easily observable in the eastern sky after sunset during summer months.
Albireo’s components exhibit contrasting colors, typically described as gold and blue, with magnitudes of 3.4 and 5.1 respectively, though individual perception of these colors may vary.
While appearing as a single star to the unaided eye, telescopic observation reveals the binary nature of the brighter component, although its sub-components are not easily resolved.
The provided text includes sunset and moonrise times (8:05 PM and 8:06 PM respectively) for a specific location (40° N 90° W) and indicates the moon phase as a 99% waxing gibbous.
Tonight, we’re visiting a summertime favorite: the double star Albireo in Cygnus the Swan. Already 60° high in the east an hour after sunset, Albireo — also cataloged as Beta (β) Cygni — marks the head of Cygnus, sitting opposite the brighter star Deneb (Alpha [α] Cyg) at the Swan’s tail. Around 9 P.M. local daylight time, look high in the east to find magnitude 0.0 Vega, Lyra’s brightest star. Drop your gaze about 15.5° below Vega and you’ll land right on 3rd-magnitude Albireo.
Although appearing as one star to the naked eye, a small telescope will reveal this is not one but two stars, separated by 34”. Their lovely contrasting colors of gold and blue are what make them such a popular target. The brighter (golden) star shines at magnitude 3.4, while its fainter (bluer) companion has a magnitude of 5.1. (That brighter star is actually itself two stars, though they cannot be easily separated in a telescope.)
Although most observers do see these stars as yellow and blue, not everyone picks up these hues the same way. Every eye is different, so you might see them as slightly — or very! — different shades. Take some time to enjoy them and consider how you would describe the colors of these two stars.
Sunrise: 6:05 A.M. Sunset: 8:05 P.M. Moonrise: 8:06 P.M. Moonset: 5:01 A.M. Moon Phase: Waxing gibbous (99%) *Times for sunrise, sunset, moonrise, and moonset are given in local time from 40° N 90° W. The Moon’s illumination is given at 12 P.M. local time from the same location.
For a look ahead at more upcoming sky events, check out our full Sky This Week column.
We’re a day away from the full moon, so let’s see what’s happening in the current lunar cycle.
This is a series of eight unique phases of the moon’s visibility. The whole cycle takes about 29.5 days, according to NASA, and these different phases happen as the Sun lights up different parts of the moon whilst it orbits Earth.
So, what’s happening with the moon tonight, Aug. 8?
What is today’s moon phase?
As of Thursday, Aug. 8, the moon phase is Waxing Gibbous. According to NASA’s Daily Moon Observation, the moon will be 99% lit up tonight, we’re so close!
So, what can you spot when you look up tonight? With no visual aids, you’ll be able to see lots on the moon’s surface, namely the Mare Imbrium, the Kepler Crater, and the Mare Vaporum.
With binoculars, you’ll also be able to see the Mare Humorum, the Endymion Crater, and the Posidonius Crater. Add a telescope to see the Descartes Highlands, the Schiller Crater, and the Rupes Altai.
When is the next full moon?
The next full moon will be on August 9. The last full moon was on July 10.
Mashable Light Speed
What are moon phases?
According to NASA, moon phases are caused by the 29.5-day cycle of the moon’s orbit, which changes the angles between the Sun, Moon, and Earth. Moon phases are how the moon looks from Earth as it goes around us. We always see the same side of the moon, but how much of it is lit up by the Sun changes depending on where it is in its orbit. This is how we get full moons, half moons, and moons that appear completely invisible. There are eight main moon phases, and they follow a repeating cycle:
New Moon – The moon is between Earth and the sun, so the side we see is dark (in other words, it’s invisible to the eye).
Waxing Crescent – A small sliver of light appears on the right side (Northern Hemisphere).
First Quarter – Half of the moon is lit on the right side. It looks like a half-moon.
Waxing Gibbous – More than half is lit up, but it’s not quite full yet.
Full Moon – The whole face of the moon is illuminated and fully visible.
Waning Gibbous – The moon starts losing light on the right side.
Last Quarter (or Third Quarter) – Another half-moon, but now the left side is lit.
Waning Crescent – A thin sliver of light remains on the left side before going dark again.
We tracked the viability of M. mulieris cells from the sample preparation steps up to 24 h after incubation in a CO2 incubator, as this is critical to interpret the impact of M. mulieris cell exposure. The viability of M. mulieris was maintained during the sample preparation (1.5 × 108 CFU/mL at T2, 1.1 × 108 CFU/mL at T3) compared to the original bacterial culture (1.9 × 108 CFU/mL at T1; Supplementary Fig. 1). However, 24 h of incubation in a CO2 incubator led to a 100-fold reduction in the viable CFU count (9.7 × 105 CFU/mL, T4).
M. mulieris live bacteria, BFS, and bEVs significantly altered gene expression in cervicovaginal epithelial cells
Exposure to live M. mulieris, their BFS, or bEV resulted in significant changes in gene expression in Ect, End, and VK2 epithelial cells (Supplementary Data 1–9). Among these, bEV exposure induced the highest number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) (Live: 13, 44, 13; BFS: 33, 116, 69; bEV: 210, 381, 313 in Ect, End, VK2, respectively; Table 1). Most DEGs were upregulated, with pathway over-representation analysis revealing broader pathway alterations in bEV-exposed cells compared to exposure to live M. mulieris cells or their BFS (Fig. 1a, Supplementary Fig. 2). Common DEGs across all exposures (13, 41, and 13 common DEGs from Ect, End, and VK2; Fig. 1b–d, Supplementary Data 10) were SAA1, BIRC3, CXCL10, MMP9, and TNFAIP3. bEV exposure uniquely altered 179, 274, and 252 DEGs in Ect, End, and VK2 cells, respectively, with a significant enrichment in immune system-related pathways: Cytokine Signaling in Immune System, Signaling by Interleukins, and Interferon alpha/beta Signaling (Supplementary Data 11).
Fig. 1: Overview of pathway over-representation analysis and DEGs results under different M. mulieris exposures.
a Heatmap showing the number of entities associated with each main pathway category in the network view of the pathway over-representation analysis. Color intensity is proportional to the number of entities in each pathway, with darker colors representing higher numbers of entities. Venn diagrams representing the number of DEGs identified in response to three M. mulieris exposure in b Ect, c End, and d VK2 cell lines.
Table 1 DEGs identified under three M. mulieris exposures
M. mulieris live bacteria, BFS, and bEVs altered more genes in vaginal compared to cervical epithelial cells
Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was first used to understand the impact of M. mulieris on pathways at the highest hierarchical level (Fig. 2a). GSEA revealed that VK2 cells tended to exhibit the highest pathway FCs in response to M. mulieris exposures, with bEV exposure tending to result in the largest FCs compared to exposure to live bacteria and BFS (Fig. 2a). The three pathways with the highest FC with significant p values after M. mulieris bEV exposure (Supplementary Data 12) were cell-cell communication (overall FC = 1.14), ECM organization (overall FC = 1.13), and immune system (overall FC = 1.12) in VK2 cells.
Fig. 2: GSEA, pathway analysis, and their DEGs for key biological pathways.
a A summary of the results from GSEA, visualizing the impact of M. mulieris on pathways at the highest hierarchical level. Fold changes (FCs) were calculated by comparing to the control group. Only cell line and exposure sets showing significant alterations are included in the plot. Different shapes represent cell lines (circle for Ect, square for End, and triangle for VK2), and colors represent the three M. mulieris exposures (orange for live, blue for BFS, and green for bEV exposure). b Heatmap showing the sub-pathways under the main pathway “Cell-cell communication” and c the DEGs involved in these sub-pathways. d Heatmap for sub-pathways under “Extracellular matrix organization” and e the DEGs involved in these sub-pathways. f Heatmap for sub-pathways under the “Immune system” and g the DEGs involved in these sub-pathways. For all heatmaps, darker colors indicate higher FC compared to the control group. Annotations representing significant alterations are visualized while non-significant changes are left blank (white) in the plots, and p values from VK2 treated with M. mulieris bEV group are summarized in Supplementary Data 13 (pathways) and Supplementary Data 14 (DEGs).
Under the cell-cell communication pathway, the sub-pathways cell-junction organization (FC = 1.1) and signal regulatory protein family interactions (FC = 1.3) were significantly overexpressed in VK2 cells exposed to M. mulieris bEVs (Fig. 2b; p values are summarized in Supplementary Data 13). Key DEGs involved included CLDN1 (FC = 1.2), SIRPB1 (FC = 1.1), and ZC3H12A (FC = 1.6) (Fig. 2c; p values are summarized in Supplementary Data 14). Under the ECM organization pathway, exposure to live M. mulieris, BFS, and bEV significantly impacted collagen formation, non-integrin membrane ECM interactions, ECM degradation, and integrin cell surface interactions in Ect and VK2 cells (Fig. 2d). In contrast, End cells were predominantly affected by bEV exposure, except for collagen formation, which was altered by all three exposures. Specifically, bEV exposure significantly increased the expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) gene family, including MMP9 (FC = 2.9), MMP1 (FC = 1.7), MMP10 (FC = 2.0), MMP13 (FC = 1.1), and MMP19 (FC = 1.2) in VK2 cells (Fig. 2e). Additionally, gene involved in collagen formation and degradation, such as COL12A1 (FC = 1.5) and CTSS (FC = 1.4), and other ECM-related genes (ICAM1, FC = 1.8; FGF2, FC = 1.4; PDGFB, FC = 1.5) were significantly upregulated in VK2 cells following bEV exposure.
Under the immune system pathway, all three M. mulieris exposures primarily affected innate immune system and cytokine signaling pathways, rather than adaptive immune system pathways, particularly in VK2 cells (Fig. 2f). Among the innate immune system sub-pathways, all exposures significantly elevated TLR cascades, NLR signaling pathways, and DDX58/IFIH1-mediated induction of interferon alpha/beta in all three epithelial cell lines. The antimicrobial peptides pathway was elevated in Ect and End cells.
Among the cytokine signaling sub-pathways, signaling by interleukins and growth hormone receptor signaling were significantly altered by all exposures in the three epithelial cell lines. In contrast, Interferon signaling and CSF3 signaling pathways’ activation were specific to End cells. In VK2 cells, bEV exposure significantly upregulated key DEGs associated with these pathways, including: Innate immune pathways: TLR signaling (TLR2, FC = 1.5), NLR signaling (BIRC3, FC = 2.9; IRAK2, FC = 1.8; MEFV, FC = 1.1; NFKB2, FC = 1.5; NLRP3, FC = 1.3; TNFAIP3, FC = 2.6), DDX58/IFIH1-mediated interferon induction (NFKBIA, FC = 1.6; S100A12, FC = 1.3), and antimicrobial peptides pathway (LCN2, FC = 1.7; S100A7, FC = 1.1); Cytokine signaling and signaling by interleukins pathways: Signaling by interleukins (CCL20, FC = 1.5; CXCL8/IL-8, FC = 2.2; IL-24, FC = 1.5; SAA1, FC = 2.4; SERPINEB2, FC = 1.8; TNF, FC = 1.2); and Growth hormone receptor signaling: SOCS1 (FC = 1.3) (Fig. 2g).
TLR2 signaling mediated an inflammatory response to M. mulieris exposures
Given the diverse immune response elicited by live M. mulieris, its BFS, and bEVs, we sought to assess whether this response was dependent on the activation of TLR212, and/or TLR5 through its flagellin, as would be suggested by the microbial structure8. We used TLR blockades to determine if the induction of select immune mediators (IL-6, IL-8, CCL20), which were found to be upregulated in the RNA-seq analysis (Fig. 2g), was dependent on TLR2 and/or TLR5 activation. Consistent with the RNA-seq analysis findings, live M. mulieris, its BFS, and bEVs all increased the protein levels of the three immune mediators. However, there were differences in the responses by cell type and between the different bacterial exposures.
Exposure to live M. mulieris increased all three immune mediators in End and VK2 cells, with no significant changes observed in Ect cells (Fig. 3a–c). In End cells, TLR2 blockade significantly reduced the M. mulieris-induced immune mediators. Blockade of TLR5 also limited the ability of M. mulieris to induce an immune response, resulting in a significant reduction in IL-6 and IL-8 levels. While live M. mulieris increased IL-6, IL-8, and CCL20 levels in VK2 cells, the immune response was not as robust as observed in Ect or End cells. Only TLR2 blockade reduced IL-8 levels, and it did not affect IL-6 or CCL20 levels induced by live M. mulieris exposure in VK2 cells. Notably, TLR5 blockade did not significantly reduce any immune mediator levels in VK2 cells exposed to live M. mulieris.
Fig. 3: Measurement of inflammation markers in Ect, End, and VK2 cells in response to M. mulieris (MM) exposure with or without hTLR2 and/or hTLR5 inhibitors.
a IL-6, b IL-8, and c CCL20 levels in response to live M. mulieris exposure; d IL-6, e IL-8, and f CCL20 levels in response to BFS M. mulieris exposure; g IL-6, h IL-8, and i CCL20 levels in response to bEV M. mulieris exposure. The inhibitors for hTLR2 and hTLR5 are written as TLR2i and TLR5i. Bar plots represent the mean, the error bars for the standard deviation, and the dots represent the technical replicate (n = 3). One-way ANOVA was used, followed by Tukey’s multiple comparison test, with statistical significance denoted by “*” (p < 0.05), “**” (p < 0.01), “***” (p < 0.001), “****” (p < 0.0001).
M. mulieris BFS significantly increased IL-8 in Ect cells (Fig. 3d), all three mediators in Endo cells (Fig. 3e), and IL-8 and CCL20 in VK2 cells (Fig. 3f). In Ect cells, both TLR2 and TLR5 blockades significantly reduced IL-8 levels. In End cells, both TLR2 and TLR5 blockade reduced all three mediator levels, where statistical significance was observed for the reduction in all three mediators by TLR2 blockade and IL-6 and CCL20 levels by TLR5 blockade. In VK2 cells, the TLR2 blockade did not significantly reduce the levels of the immune mediators, but the TLR5 blockade significantly reduced the IL-8 and CCL20 levels. The combination of TLR2 and TLR5 blockades demonstrated a synergistic effect, reaching statistical significance for IL-8 and CCL20 levels in all cell lines and IL-6 levels in Ect and End cells.
M. mulieris bEVs significantly elevated the three immune mediators across the three cell lines (Fig. 3g–i). TLR2 blockade was sufficient to significantly reduce IL-6 and CCL20 levels in Ect cells, as well as IL-8 and CCL20 levels in End cells, with no significant impact from TLR5 blockade. In VK2 cells, TLR2 blockade significantly reduced IL-8 levels, and both TLR2 and TLR5 blockade significantly reduced CCL20 levels. An additive effect of TLR2 and TLR5 blockades was observed for IL-8 in all three epithelial cell lines.
As a quality control measure, neither TLR2 nor TLR5 blockades affected baseline immune mediators’ expression in any cell line (Supplementary Fig. 3a–c), except for a significant, but minor increase in CCL20 levels in Ect cells following TLR2 blockade compared to the control group, with a mean increase of only 10.5 pg/mL.
MMP9 production is induced by M. mulieris via TLR signaling
A key finding from the RNA-seq analysis was that M. mulieris increased expression of MMP9, a matrix metalloproteinase involved in ECM degradation and previously associated with PTB22. Since RNA-seq data showed that live M. mulieris, its BFS, and bEVs significantly upregulated MMP9 gene expression in all cervicovaginal epithelial cells tested in this study (Fig. 2e), we sought to determine whether any M. mulieris exposures also altered MMP9 protein levels by measuring the total MMP9 (including both active and inactive forms). We found that exposure to live M. mulieris, BFS, and bEV significantly increased MMP9 protein levels in VK2 cell culture supernatant (Fig. 4a–c), while MMP9 levels in Ect and End cells remained below the detection limit. No change in MMP9 production was noted with exposure to L. crispatus, an optimal vaginal bacterium (Supplementary Fig. 4).
Fig. 4: In vitro analysis of MMP9 protein expression in response to live, BFS, and bEV M. mulieris (MM) exposures.
MMP9 protein levels were measured in the culture media of VK2 cells exposed to a live, b BFS, and c bEV M. mulieris exposures, with and without the addition of hTLR2 and/or hTLR5 inhibitors (denoted as TLR2i and TLR5i). One-way ANOVA was used to compare MMP9 concentrations between groups. For statistically significant results (p < 0.05), post-hoc tests were applied. d MMP9 protein levels measured in the culture media of THP1 wild-type cells in response to d live, e bEV, and f BFS M. mulieris exposures. Unpaired t-tests were used to compare MMP9 concentrations between control and M. mulieris exposures. g MMP9 protein levels measured in the culture media of THP1 wild type and THP-TLR2KO exposed to g live and h bEV. mulieris exposures. White bars represent the results from THP1 cells, and black bars represent the results from THP1-TLR2KO cells. Bar plots represent the mean, the error bars for the standard deviation, and the dots represent the technical replicate (n = 3). Two-way ANOVA was applied to assess the impact of TLR2 knockout. The statistical significance was denoted by “*” (p < 0.05), “**” (p < 0.01), and “***” (p < 0.001).
The increase in MMP9 by live M. mulieris was significantly reduced by TLR2 blockade but not by TLR5 blockade (Fig. 4a). In contrast, the increase in MMP9 by M. mulieris BFS was significantly reduced by TLR5 blockade and, to a lesser extent, by TLR2 blockade (Fig. 4b). The combination of TLR2 and TLR5 blockades further decreased the MMP9 levels induced by M. mulieris BFS. The increase in MMP9 by M. mulieris bEVs was only significantly reduced when both TLR2 and TLR5 blockades were combined (Fig. 4c).
As a quality control measure, we confirmed that the addition of TLR2 and/or TLR5 inhibitors did not alter baseline MMP9 protein expression (Supplementary Fig. 3d).
To confirm the role of TLR2 in mediating M. mulieris-induced MMP9 production, we assessed MMP9 levels following exposure to live M. mulieris cells, BFS, and bEV in THP1 wild-type and THP1 TLR2-deficient cells (THP1-TLR2KO). Exposures to both live M. mulieris (Fig. 4d) and bEV M. mulieris (Fig. 4e), but not BFS (Fig. 4f), significantly increased MMP9 production. The absence of TLR2 significantly reduced MMP9 production in response to exposures to live M. mulieris (Fig. 4g) and M. mulieris bEVs (Fig. 4h).
M. mulieris abundance correlates with MMP9 levels in vaginal swabs from pregnant women
We compared MMP9 protein levels in vaginal samples from two groups: 20 pregnant women with a high abundance of L. crispatus and no detectable M. mulieris (high LC group) and 10 pregnant women with low L. crispatus and high M. mulieris abundance (high MM group). As shown in Table 2, there were no significant differences between the groups in race, age, gestational age at sample collection, infant birth weights, or gestational age at delivery between the groups (p > 0.05). The high MM group had significantly higher MMP9 levels than the high LC group (Fig. 5a). However, vaginal MMP9 concentration did not show a direct correlation with M. mulieris abundance (p = 0.38, r = 0.16). Within the high MM group, CST IV-A and CST V subtypes exhibited a trend toward higher MMP9 levels (Fig. 5b).
Fig. 5: MMP9 concentrations in vaginal swab samples from subjects in the high L. crispatus (LC) and high M. mulieris (MM) groups.
a A bar plot showing the MMP9 concentrations measured in vaginal swab samples from subjects in the high LC and high MM groups. Bar plots represent the mean and the error bars for the standard deviation. The Mann–Whitney test was applied to compare MMP9 levels between the two groups, with statistical significance indicated by “***” (p < 0.001). b Within the high MM group, MMP9 concentrations were visualized by finer CST groupings.
Table 2 Metadata of subjects from whom Dacron vaginal swabs were collected for High L. crispatus (LC) and High M. mulieris (MM) groups
Researchers at European XFEL in Germany have tracked in real time the movement of individual atoms during a chemical reaction in the gas phase. Using extremely short X-ray flashes, they were able to observe the formation of an iodine molecule (I₂) after irradiating diiodomethane (CH₂I₂) molecules by infrared light, which involves breaking two bonds and forming a new one. At the same time, they were able to distinguish this reaction from two other reaction pathways, namely the separation of a single iodine atom from the diiodomethane, or the excitation of bending vibrations in the bound molecule. The results provide new insights into fundamental reaction mechanisms that have so far been very difficult to distinguish experimentally.
Diiodomethane irradiated with infrared light can undergo several different reactions. Intense X-ray pulses of European XFEL and a reaction microscope of the SQS instrument were used to characterize three major reaction pathways.
So-called elimination reactions in which small molecules are formed from a larger molecule are central to many chemical processes—from atmospheric chemistry to catalyst research. However, the detailed mechanism of many reactions, in which several atoms break and re-form their bonds, often remains obscure. The reason: The processes take place in incredibly short times—in femtoseconds, or a few millionths of a billionth of a second.
An innovative experimental approach was now used at the SQS instrument at European XFEL to visualize such reaction dynamics. The researchers irradiated diiodomethane molecules with ultrashort infrared laser pulses, which triggered the molecular reactions. Femtoseconds later, intense X-ray flashes shattered the molecules, causing their atomic components to fly apart in a “Coulomb explosion.” The trajectories and velocities of the ions were then recorded by a detection device called the COLTRIMS reaction microscope (COLd Target Recoil Ion Momentum Spectroscopy)—one of the detection instruments at the SQS experimental station that is made available to users.
“Using this method, we were able to precisely track how the iodine atoms assemble while the methylene group is cleaved off,” explains Artem Rudenko from Kansas State University, USA, the principal investigator of the experiment. The analysis revealed that both synchronous and asynchronous mechanisms contribute to the formation of the iodine molecule—a result that was supported by theoretical calculations.
Remarkably, “Although this reaction pathway only accounts for about ten percent of the resulting products, we were able to clearly distinguish it from the other competing reactions,” explains Rebecca Boll from the European XFEL’s SQS (Small Quantum Systems) instrument in Schenefeld near Hamburg. This was made possible by the precise selection of specific ion fragmentation channels and their time-resolved analysis.
Furthermore, the researchers were able to track the vibrational motion of the newly formed iodine molecule. “Now, we can more directly observe how an isolated molecule breaks and forms bonds during a chemical reaction—in real time and with atomic precision,” says Xiang Li, the first author of the publication and a scientist at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory in the United States. This is a crucial step toward truly understanding chemical processes. These observations not only provide a detailed picture of reaction mechanisms but also open up new avenues for investigating more complex chemical processes.
In the future, these techniques will be extended to even larger molecules and more complex reactions. Thanks to planned technical improvements to the European XFEL X-ray laser, even faster and more detailed insights into the world of ultrafast molecular dynamics can be gained in the future.
Original publication
Xiang Li, Rebecca Boll, Patricia Vindel-Zandbergen, Jesús González-Vázquez, Daniel E. Rivas, Surjendu Bhattacharyya, Kurtis Borne, Keyu Chen, … Sergey Usenko, Anbu Selvam Venkatachalam, Enliang Wang, James P. Cryan, Michael Meyer, Till Jahnke, Phay J. Ho, Daniel Rolles, Artem Rudenko; “Imaging a light-induced molecular elimination reaction with an X-ray free-electron laser”; Nature Communications, Volume 16, 2025-7-30
