Category: 7. Science

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August 25, 2025

Supernovae are among the most energetic phenomena in the Universe, and definitely one of the most spectacular! These events take place when a star has reached the end of its life cycle and undergoes gravitational collapse at its center, exploding and shedding its outer layers in the process. For astronomers, supernovae are not only a fascinating field of study, shedding light on the evolution of stars, but are also a means of measuring distance and the rate at which the Universe is expanding. They are an essential part of the Cosmic Distance Ladder because their brightness makes them very reliable “standard candles.”

Spotting supernovae represented a major challenge, though, since they are transient events that are extremely difficult to predict. Luckily, astronomers are getting better at spotting supernovae thanks to high-cadence surveys by observatories that continuously monitor the skies. According to a new study led by the Institute of Space Sciences (ICE-CSIC) in Barcelona, it is still crucial to develop protocols and methods for detecting them promptly. They further present a methodology for obtaining the spectra of supernovae as soon as possible by combining wide-field sky surveys with immediate follow-up by telescopes.

The research was led by Lluís Galbany, a staff researcher at the Institute of Space Sciences (ICE-CSIC) and a member of the Institut d’Estudis Espacials de Catalunya(IEEC). He and his colleagues at the ICE-SCIC and IEEC were joined by researchers from the European Southern Observatory (ESO), the Institut de Física d’Altes Energies (IFAE), the Instituto de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales (ICEN), the Instituto de Astrofísica de La Plata (IALP), and numerous universities worldwide. Their paper, “Rapid follow-up observations of infant supernovae with the Gran Telescopio Canarias,” has been published in the Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics (JCAP).

Artistic elaboration based on images from the original paper Galbany et al., JCAP, 2025. Credit: Galbany et al., JCAP, 2025

Detecting a supernova during the first hours and days after it explodes is essential since the explosion preserves direct clues about the progenitor system. This information helps distinguish between competing explosion models and allows astronomers to estimate critical parameters and study the local environment. This has proved very challenging in the past because most supernovae were detected days or weeks after the explosion event. These explosions fall into two broad categories, which are determined by the mass of the progenitor star.

The first are known as thermonuclear supernovae, which involve stars whose initial mass did not exceed eight Solar masses (typically white dwarfs). If these stars are part of a binary system, their powerful gravity will likely siphon material from their companion, raising the star’s internal pressure until it explodes in a Type Ia supernova. The second type is core-collapse supernovae, which involve massive stars whose initial mass exceeds this limit. As Galbany summarized in an ICE-CSIC press release:

They shine thanks to nuclear fusion in their cores, but once the star has burned through progressively heavier atoms—right up to the point where further fusion no longer yields energy—the core collapses. At that point, the star collapses because gravity is no longer counterbalanced; the rapid contraction raises the internal pressure dramatically and triggers the explosion. The sooner we see them, the better.

As noted, high-cadence surveys that cover large sections of the sky and revisit them frequently are changing this, though protocols are still needed to exploit the data they collect. The protocol developed by Galbany and his colleagues begins with a rapid search for candidates based on the criteria that it was absent in the previous night’s images, and the new light source lies within a galaxy. When both conditions are met, the team triggers the Optical System for Imaging and low-Intermediate-Resolution Integrated Spectroscopy (OSIRIS) instrument on the Gran Telescopio de Canarias (GTC) to obtain spectra from the explosions. Said Galbany:

The supernova’s spectrum tells us, for instance, whether the star contained hydrogen—meaning we are looking at a core-collapse supernova. Knowing about the supernova in its very earliest moments also lets us seek other kinds of data on the same object, such as photometry from the Zwicky Transient Facility (ZTF) and the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) that we used in the study. Those light-curves show how brightness rises in the initial phase; if we see small bumps, it may mean another star in a binary system was swallowed by the explosion.

The ICE Gran Telescopio Canarias telescope, located at the El Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on the island of La Palma, Spain. Credit: Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias

The team tested this method using GTC data and found ten supernovae that occurred within six days, two within the first 48 hours. The ten events were divided equally into the thermonuclear and core-collapse categories, and the team confirmed them by making additional cross-matches with data obtained by other observatories on the same patch of sky. Based on the success of their study, the team believes that even faster detections are within reach. As Galbany summarized:

What we have just published is a pilot study. We now know that a rapid-response spectroscopic program, well coordinated with deep photometric surveys, can realistically collect spectra within a day of the explosion, paving the way for systematic studies of the very earliest phases in forthcoming large surveys such as the La Silla Southern Supernova Survey (LS4) and the Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST), both in Chile.

Further Reading: ICE-CSIC, arXiv

The mesopause is the coldest layer of the planet’s atmosphere, with temperatures that can dip to nearly minus 148 degrees Fahrenheit, according to NASA.

Scientists have been eager to learn more about that dynamic part of the atmosphere because it is known to be a “mixing ground where weather patterns from the lower atmosphere transfer energy upward into space, fueling turbulence that can increase drag on satellites.”

Its location, however, is too high for weather balloons to reach and too low to study using satellites. Sounding rockets, on the other hand, can be launched to specific altitudes to capture data and observations.

The first two TOMEX+ rockets will launch within roughly a minute of each other and release trails of vapor, known as vapor tracers. A third rocket equipped with a laser will then send out pulses of light that will help researchers track the twists and turns of the vapor tracers, enabling them to track motions in the upper atmosphere as energy moves through it.

Vapor tracers typically contain barium, lithium and an aluminum compound — similar to the materials used to make colorful fireworks — according to NASA. The small amounts of gas are not thought to be harmful to people or other life on the ground, the agency said.

Earlier attempts to launch the TOMEX+ rockets were called off because of Hurricane Erin, which churned up the Atlantic Ocean last week and created high seas in NASA’s designated rocket recovery area.

Jupiter holds secrets at its heart that continue to puzzle scientists. The largest planet in our Solar System has what researchers call a “dilute core,” a central region that doesn’t have sharp boundaries like once expected. Instead of a distinct rocky centre surrounded by layers of gas, Jupiter’s core gradually blends into the hydrogen-rich layers above it, creating a smooth transition zone.

This unusual structure was first discovered by NASA’s Juno spacecraft, which has been orbiting Jupiter since 2016. The finding surprised astronomers, who had assumed giant planets would have more clearly defined cores. The mystery deepened when observations revealed that Saturn appears to have a similar dilute core structure.

Juno awaiting its launch in 2011 (Credit : Bill Ingalls)

One popular explanation for Jupiter’s fuzzy core involved a catastrophic collision early in the planet’s history. Scientists theorised that a massive object, perhaps containing half of Jupiter’s core material, crashed into the young planet with such force that it thoroughly mixed the central region. This collision would have been so violent that it scrambled the dense rock and ice at Jupiter’s centre with the lighter hydrogen and helium surrounding it.

A team of researchers at Durham University decided to put this giant impact theory to the test using powerful computer simulations. Working with scientists from NASA, SETI, and the University of Oslo, they used the DiRAC COSMA supercomputer to model what would happen when massive objects collide with Jupiter sized planets. The team ran multiple simulations using cutting edge software, testing various impact scenarios including extremely violent collisions. They employed new methods to better simulate how materials would mix during such catastrophic events.

A picture of The Ogden Centre for Fundamental Physics Building, at Durham University (Credit : Padgriffin)

The results were clear and unexpected; none of the simulations produced a stable dilute core like the one Jupiter actually has. Instead, the computer models showed that after a giant impact, the dense rocky material would quickly settle back down, creating a sharp boundary between the core and the outer hydrogen layers, exactly the opposite of what Juno observed.

“We see in our simulations that this kind of impact literally shakes the planet to its core, just not in the right way to explain the interior of Jupiter that we see today.” – Dr. Thomas Sandnes from Durham University.

The study, published in Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, suggests that Jupiter’s dilute core formed through a much more gradual process. Rather than being created by a single dramatic collision, the unusual structure likely developed as the growing planet slowly absorbed both heavy and light materials during its formation billions of years ago. This gradual formation theory gains support from the fact that Saturn also has a dilute core. Dr. Luis Teodoro from the University of Oslo pointed out that Saturn’s similar structure strengthens the idea that dilute cores are not the result of rare, extremely high energy impacts but instead form gradually during the long process of planetary growth and evolution.

These findings have implications beyond our Solar System. Astronomers have discovered many Jupiter and Saturn sized planets orbiting other stars. If dilute cores form gradually rather than through rare catastrophic events, it suggests that most of these distant worlds might have similarly complex internal structures. The research demonstrates that while giant impacts certainly played important roles in planetary formation, they cannot explain every feature we observe. As scientists continue to study our stellar neighbourhood and the thousands of planets beyond, mysteries like Jupiter’s core remind us that the universe still holds many surprises.

Source : New study counters idea that Jupiter’s mysterious core was formed by a giant impact

The ocean covers most of our planet, yet much of it remains out of reach. Scientists have long struggled to study life in the deep sea. Robotic equipment is expensive, and people cannot dive to extreme depths.

These issues leave entire marine ecosystems unexplored. Nicole Xu, an engineer at CU Boulder, is confident that her lab’s “cyborg” moon jellyfish can help.

These sea creatures, also known as Aurelia aurita, are simple but remarkable. They move with little effort, pulsing gently as their translucent bells expand and contract. Their tentacles drift behind them like threads, yet every motion is purposeful.

Creating “cyborg” moon jellyfish

Xu has watched jellyfish for years, first as a fascinated student and now as a researcher. She studies their movements not just to admire them, but to put them to work.

Her team attaches small electronic devices to the animals. These devices stimulate their muscles and allow researchers to steer them. Soon, the system may carry sensors to track temperature, acidity, and other ocean data.

That could send jellyfish into places humans rarely reach, and return information that is otherwise too costly to gather.

“Think of our device like a pacemaker on the heart,” Xu said. “We’re stimulating the swim muscle by causing contractions and turning the animals toward a certain direction.”

Survival through 500 million years

Climate change is hitting the ocean hard. The water is getting warmer and more acidic as carbon dioxide levels rise.

Marine life struggles to adapt, and many species are in danger. Scientists need to measure how these changes unfold.

The challenge is scale. The ocean is vast, deep, and unpredictable. Sending ships or robots everywhere is simply not possible.

That is where jellyfish stand out. They are some of the most energy-efficient creatures alive. They have survived in their current form for more than 500 million years.

Moon jellyfish are ideal explorers

Jellyfish don’t have a brain or spine, but their basic organs and nerve nets keep them moving.

They also lack nociceptors, so they don’t experience pain the way humans do. Their stings cannot break human skin, which makes them easier to work with.

Moon jellyfish live in many environments. They often float near shorelines where food is abundant. But they also dive to extreme depths, even as far as the Mariana Trench, 36,000 feet (10,900 meters) down.

That range makes them ideal for exploration. Xu first tested her biohybrid jellyfish in 2020, guiding them through shallow waters near Woods Hole, Massachusetts.

“There’s really something special about the way moon jellies swim. We want to unlock that to create more energy-efficient, next-generation underwater vehicles,” she said.

Learning how moon jellyfish work

Xu’s lab doesn’t only focus on movement. She and her team study how jellyfish push water as they swim. To see this, they fill tanks with biodegradable particles like corn starch. They then shine lasers through the water.

The particles light up the flow patterns created by the jellyfish. This approach replaces older methods that used synthetic tracers such as glass beads. Those tracers were more toxic and less sustainable. Corn starch is safer, cheaper, and better for the animals.

Her group also works on improving steering in natural ocean conditions. The open sea is far less predictable than a lab tank, so making the technology reliable outside is a big step.

Xu believes these advances can lead to new tools that draw ideas from nature rather than replacing it. But the research is not only about technology – it also raises ethical questions.

Caring for moon jellyfish in labs

For many years, scientists believed invertebrates could not feel pain. New evidence now suggests that some may react to harmful experiences.

That means researchers must think carefully about how their experiments affect the animals they study. Xu takes this seriously.

She watches for signs of stress in her jellyfish. Stress usually causes them to produce extra mucus and stop reproducing.

Her jellyfish show none of those patterns. Instead, they seem to be thriving. Inside her tanks, baby polyps the size of pinheads are growing, with tiny tentacles starting to appear. That growth suggests the jellyfish are healthy and reproducing naturally.

“It’s our responsibility as researchers to think about these ethical considerations up front,” Xu said. “But as far as we can tell, the jellyfish are doing well. They’re thriving.”

Jellyfish as ocean allies

Jellyfish may look simple, but they represent a major shift in how humans can explore the ocean. By combining engineering with biology, Xu’s work shows that living creatures can serve as allies in research.

They move efficiently, survive in extreme environments, and carry little risk to humans. Outfitted with sensors, they could one day map parts of the ocean we know almost nothing about.

This is not science fiction. Xu has already proven the concept in the field. Her next steps include refining the technology and expanding its capabilities.

She sees jellyfish not only as data gatherers but also as inspiration. Their effortless swimming could shape how we design future underwater vehicles.

The idea challenges how people think about research tools. Instead of building larger machines, we might adapt what already exists in nature. It is efficient, elegant, and potentially transformative.

At the same time, Xu insists that ethical care for the animals must remain at the center of this work.

Her project stands as a reminder that progress and responsibility can go together. The moon jellyfish, a creature that has floated through Earth’s waters for half a billion years, may now help us understand how those waters are changing today.

The study is published in the journal Physical Review Fluids.

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Asteroids floating through our Solar System are debris left over from when our planetary neighbourhood formed 4.6 billion years ago. Scientists study these ancient fragments as time capsules that reveal secrets about our Solar System’s earliest days. Now, new research has uncovered a surprising connection between two completely different types of asteroids that may actually share the same dramatic origin story.

Studying asteroids like Ceres – captured here – allow us to learn more about the origins of the Solar System ( Credit : NASA / JPL-Caltech / UCLA / MPS / DLR / IDA / Justin Cowart)

Joe Masiero from the Infrared Processing and Analysis Centre at Caltech led a study that challenges how we think about groups of asteroids. His team discovered that two distinct categories of space rocks; one metallic and shiny, the other made of rocky silicates, both carry the same unusual dusty fingerprint on their surfaces. This discovery suggests these seemingly different asteroids may have started life as parts of the same massive parent objects that later shattered into the smaller fragments we observe today.

Astronomers classify asteroids into groups based on how they reflect light, using letters like M, K, and C to denote different types. M-type asteroids are metal rich and almost gleam like mirrors, while K-type asteroids are composed of silicates, the same rocky materials that make up about 95 percent of Earth’s crust and mantle. Despite their completely different compositions, both types share something unexpected, a thin coating of troilite, an unusual iron/sulphur compound that acts like a fingerprint.

“Troilite is very uncommon, so we can use it as a fingerprint that links these two different types of objects to each other.” – Joe Masiero from the Infrared Processing and Analysis Centre at Caltech

Finding this rare material on both asteroid types is like discovering the same distinctive paint on seemingly unrelated artefacts, it suggests they came from the same source. To uncover this connection, the team used a sophisticated technique that goes beyond simply looking at asteroid colours or brightness. He studied polarisation, the directional properties of light reflected from asteroid surfaces. Just as polarised sunglasses filter glare by blocking light waves oriented in certain directions, different minerals on asteroid surfaces create unique polarisation patterns when sunlight bounces off them.

Using the WIRC+Pol instrument at Caltech’s Palomar Observatory, they measured how polarised light from these asteroids changed as they moved through their orbits. Like the Moon, asteroids go through phases as they travel around the Sun, appearing differently lit from Earth’s perspective. These changing viewing angles revealed details about surface composition that traditional colour analysis couldn’t detect.

The polarisation data revealed that both M-type and K-type asteroids have surface layers of troilite dust, despite their dramatically different underlying compositions. This shared feature suggests they originated from the same type of large parent bodies that later fragmented into the smaller asteroids we see today.

Image of the M-type asteroid 21 Lutetia taken by the ESA Rosetta Spacecraft during a flyby in 2010 (Credit : ESA 2010 MPS for OSIRIS Team)

The team theorise that these parent objects were like miniature planets with distinct layers, dense metallic cores surrounded by rocky mantles, similar to Earth’s structure. When these large objects were destroyed, perhaps by massive collisions early in Solar System history, the fragments from different layers became the diverse asteroid types we observe today. The metallic M-types came from the cores, while the rocky K-types originated from the outer layers.

The troilite dust coating both types could have been present on the original object’s surface before it broke apart, or it might have formed a cloud that settled on all the fragments after the destruction. Either way, this rare mineral serves as evidence linking these asteroid families to common ancestors.

This research demonstrates how asteroids serve as archaeological records of our Solar System’s violent early history. Unlike Earth, where geological and atmospheric processes have erased most traces of our planet’s formation, asteroids preserve pristine samples of the materials and conditions that existed when solid objects first began forming around the young Sun.

Source : Two Different Types of Asteroids May Actually Share Same Origin Story

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For astrobiologists, the search for life beyond our solar system could be likened to where one would look in a vast desert—essentially, where there’s water. And it turns out that one of the most common types of exoplanet observed in planetary systems beyond ours have a size and mass that indicate a water-rich interior. They are categorized as “sub-Neptunes” because their size and mass are between that of Earth and Neptune.

But because these types of exoplanets tend to be much closer to their host star than Earth is to the Sun, sub-Neptunes are too hot to have liquid water on their surface and support life. Instead, they would have atmospheres made of steam, over layers of an exotic phase of water that behaves like neither gas nor liquid. Since the existence of these “steam worlds” were first predicted 20 years ago, interest in their exact makeup and evolution has grown.

Now, astrobiologists and astronomers at the University of California, Santa Cruz, have developed a more precise way to model these steam worlds to help better understand their composition, and ultimately, how they formed in the first place. “When we understand how the most commonly observed planets in the universe form, we can shift our focus to less common exoplanets that could actually be habitable,” said Artem Aguichine, a postdoctoral researcher at UC Santa Cruz who led the development of the new model.

The work is explained in a paper published on July 24 in The Astrophysical Journal and is co-authored by Professor Natalie Batalha, head of UC Santa Cruz’s astrobiology initiative, along with Professor Jonathan Fortney, chair of the university’s Astronomy and Astrophysics Department.

More than icy moons

For the first time in history, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) confirmed the presence of steam on a handful of sub-Neptunes. Astronomers expect JWST to observe dozens more, which is why such models are critical to connect what we see from the exoplanet’s surface to what is inside of them.

The models historically used to characterize sub-Neptunes were developed to study the icy moons in our solar system, such as Jupiter’s moon Europa and Saturn’s moon Enceladus. Aguichine says sophisticated models can help interpret what space telescopes like JWST reveal about sub-Neptunes.

Icy moons are small, condensed bodies with layered structures: icy crusts over liquid water oceans. Sub-Neptunes are much different. They are vastly more massive—10 to 100 times as much—and, again, they orbit much closer to their stars. So they don’t have icy crusts and liquid oceans like Europa or Enceladus. Instead, they develop thick steam atmospheres and layers of “supercritical water.”

This exotic, supercritical phase of water has been recreated and studied in laboratories on Earth, exhibiting behavior that is far more complex than simple liquid water or ice—thus, making it difficult to model accurately. Some models even suggest that, under extreme pressure and temperature conditions inside sub-Neptunes, water may even transform into “superionic ice,” a phase in which water molecules reorganize so hydrogen ions move freely through an oxygen lattice.

This phase has been produced in the lab and is thought to exist in the deep interiors of Uranus, Neptune, and potentially sub-Neptunes as well. So, to model sub-Neptunes, researchers need to understand how water behaves as pure steam, as supercritical fluid, and in extreme states like superionic ice. This team’s model accounts for the experimental data on the physics of water under extreme conditions and advances the theoretical modeling that’s required.

“The interiors of planets are natural ‘laboratories’ for studying conditions that are difficult to reproduce in a university laboratory on Earth. What we learn could have unforeseen applications we haven’t even considered. The water worlds are especially exotic in this sense,” Batalha explained. “In the future, we may find that a subset of these water worlds represent new niches for life in the galaxy.”

By modeling the distribution of water in these common exoplanets, scientists can trace how water—one of the universe’s most abundant molecules—moves during the formation of planetary systems. Indeed, Aguichine said water has a range of fascinating properties:

• It is both a chemical acid and base, participating in chemical balance
• It is good at dissolving salts, sugars, and amino acids
• It creates hydrogen bonds – giving water a higher viscosity, a higher boiling point, a greater capacity to store heat, and more.

“Life can be understood as complexity,” Aguichine said, “and water has a wide range of properties that enables this complexity.”

Looking back and forward

He also stressed that their modeling focuses not on static snapshots of sub-Neptunes, but accounts for their evolution over millions and billions of years. Because planetary properties change significantly over time, modeling that evolution is essential for accurate predictions, he said.

The modelling will soon be put to the test by continued observations with JWST, and also with future missions such as the European Space Agency’s upcoming launch of the PLAnetary Transit and Oscillation (PLATO) of stars telescope, a mission designed to find Earth-like planets in the habitable zone of their host star.

“PLATO will be able to tell us how accurate our models are, and in what direction we need to refine them,” Aguichine said. “So really, our models are currently making these predictions for the telescopes, while helping shape the next steps in the search for life beyond Earth.”

When NASA’s Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope launches in October 2026, it won’t just be peering into the distant universe to study dark energy and exoplanets. This powerful observatory will also serve as Earth’s newest guardian, helping scientists track and understand potentially dangerous asteroids and comets that could threaten our planet.

The Roman Space Telescope will position itself at the Earth-Sun L2 Lagrange point, a gravitationally stable location about 1.5 million kilometres from Earth in the opposite direction of the Sun. From this vantage point, the telescope will use its sensitive near infrared vision to study near Earth objects (NEOs), the asteroids and comets whose orbits bring them close to our planet.

Roman Space Telescope’s spacecraft bus at Goddard Space Flight Center, September 2024 (Credit : NASA)

What makes Roman particularly valuable for planetary defence is its ability to measure the physical properties of these space rocks with unprecedented precision. While other telescopes can spot asteroids, Roman will be able to determine their size, shape, composition, and exact orbital paths. This detailed information is crucial for understanding which objects pose real threats and which are harmless.

Roman won’t be working alone in this astronomical neighbourhood watch. It will join forces with two other major asteroid hunting missions to create a comprehensive planetary defence network spanning the electromagnetic spectrum. The Vera C. Rubin Observatory, already operational in Chile, uses visible light to scan the sky and is expected to discover over 100,000 new near Earth objects. Meanwhile, the upcoming NEO Surveyor space mission will observe in the mid infrared range, where asteroids glow with heat, potentially detecting between 200,000 and 300,000 NEOs, including some as small as 20 meters across.

Vera C. Rubin Observatory and the Milky Way Galaxy (Credit : Rubin Observatory/NSF/AURA/B. Quint)

Each telescope brings unique strengths to the asteroid hunting team. Rubin excels at finding new objects across wide swaths of sky. NEO Surveyor can detect the thermal signatures of small asteroids that might be too faint to see in visible light. Roman, with its high resolution, near infrared capabilities, will provide the detailed follow up observations needed to truly understand these objects.

One of Roman’s most important contributions will be dramatically improving our knowledge of asteroid orbits. Current measurements of NEO trajectories will be enhanced by two to three orders of magnitude, meaning our predictions of where these objects will be in the future will become thousands of times more accurate. This precision is essential for determining whether an asteroid discovered today might pose a threat decades from now.

Roman will also work closely with NEO Surveyor to provide accurate size and brightness measurements of asteroids. By observing the same objects in different infrared wavelengths, the two telescopes can determine both how big an asteroid is and how reflective its surface is, key factors in assessing potential impact damage.

NEO Surveyor’s mirror (Credit : NASA/JPL-Caltech)

Perhaps most intriguingly, Roman will be able to identify the compositions and spectral types of even the smallest near Earth objects. This information reveals what asteroids are made of; whether they’re rocky, metallic, or icy, something which affects both their potential impact effects and their value as future resources for space exploration.

To accomplish these goals, NASA will need to develop new data processing techniques specifically designed to extract information from images of fast moving objects. Unlike distant galaxies that appear stationary, asteroids streak across Roman’s field of view, requiring specialised software to track them and measure their properties accurately.

The timing of these three missions creates an unprecedented opportunity for planetary defence. Together, they will provide the most comprehensive census of potentially hazardous asteroids ever compiled. This knowledge is essential not just for protecting Earth from impacts, but also for understanding the population of small bodies left over from our Solar System’s formation.

Source : The Roman Space Telescope as a Planetary Defence Asset

The near-Earth asteroid Bennu contains stardust that is older than our solar system, as well as organic materials and ices from interstellar space, three fresh studies of the asteroid’s sample materials show.

Scientists all over the world have been poring over samples of Bennu ever since material from the asteroid was brought to Earth in 2023, courtesy of NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission, which flew alongside the asteroid before briefly landing on it and scooping up samples in 2020.