Category: 7. Science

According to the prevailing theory of how the Moon formed, it all began roughly 4.5 billion years ago when a Mars-sized object (Theia) collided with a primordial Earth. This caused both bodies to become a molten mass that eventually coalesced to form the Earth-Moon System (aka. The Giant Impact Hypothesis. This theory also states that the Moon gradually cooled from the top down, with the crust solidifying and arresting lava flows early in its history. However, recent findings from samples obtained by China’s Chiang’e-5 probe indicate that lava existed at shallower depths longer than previously thought.

These samples obtained by the Chiang’e-5 lander were from the young mare basalt unit in the Oceanus Procellarum region, a vast lunar mare on the western edge of the near side of the Moon. The samples included 1.7 kilograms (3.7 pounds) of scooped and drilled material composed of basalt and igneous rock that formed roughly 2 billion years ago, making them the youngest samples obtained to date. These findings contradict the previous theory that the temperature of the outer layers of the Moon was too low for melting to occur in the shallow interior, and could revise theories about the Moon’s early evolution.

The research was led by Stephen M. Elardo, an Assistant Professor from The Florida Planets Lab at the University of Florida. He was joined by researchers from the Colorado School of Mines, the University of Rochester, the Planetary Science Institute (PSI), the Hawaiʻi Institute of Geophysics and Planetology, the University of Hawaiʻi Manoa, and the University of Oxford. The paper describing their findings appeared on July 18th in the journal Science Advances.

The Chiang’e-5 samples are examples of rock formed from rapidly cooled lava, which is characteristic of the mare region from which they were obtained. To obtain an estimate of how deep this lava came from, the team conducted high-pressure and high-temperature experiments on a lava simulant with an identical composition. Based on remote sensing from orbit, previous work from Chinese scientists showed it erupted in an area with very high abundances of radioactive, heat-producing elements, including potassium, thorium, and uranium.

In large amounts, the researchers believe these elements could generate enough heat to keep the Moon hot near the surface, slowing the cooling process over time. Before this study, it was presumed that the upper mantle cooled first as the surface gradually lost heat to space, which was based largely on seismic data obtained by the Apollo astronauts. Per this theory, younger lavas like the samples obtained by the Chang’e-5 lander should have come from the deep mantle, where the Moon would still be hot. However, these findings suggest there must have been pockets in the shallow mantle that were hot enough to partially melt rock 2 billion years ago.

As Prof. Elardo explained in a UF News release:

Using our experimental results and thermal evolution calculations, we put together a simple model showing that an enrichment in radioactive elements would have kept the Moon’s upper mantle hundreds of degrees hotter than it would have been otherwise, even at 2 billion years ago.

Lunar magmatism, which is the record of volcanic activity on the Moon, gives us a direct window into the composition of the Moon’s mantle, which is where magmas ultimately come from. We don’t have any direct samples of the Moon’s mantle like we do for Earth, so our window into the composition of the mantle comes indirectly from its lavas.

Artist’s impression of the interior structure of the Moon. Credit: Hernán Cañellas/Benjamin Weiss/MIT

This research is helping to establish a detailed timeline of the Moon’s evolution, which is critical to understanding how planets and smaller bodies form and evolve. The prevailing theory is that this process begins with accretion from a protoplanetary disk, where dust and gas coalesce due to angular momentum to form planetary bodies. Initially, these bodies are extremely hot and have molten surfaces, which gradually cool to form solid bodies composed of rock and metal, with some forming envelopes of gas or volatiles like water (depending on where they form around their host stars).

The process of cooling and geological layer formation are key steps in the evolution of these bodies. Since the Moon is Earth’s closest celestial neighbor, studying lunar samples is the easiest way to learn more about these processes. Said Elardo:

My hope is that this study will lead to more work in lunar geodynamics, which is a field that uses complex computer simulations to model how planetary interiors move, flow, and cool through time. This is an area, at least for the Moon, where there’s a lot of uncertainty, and my hope is that this study helps to give that community another important data point for future models.

Further Reading: UF News, Science Advances

Lava planets are rocky exoplanets that orbit so close to their host star that their dayside is hot enough to melt silicate rock.

Lava planets are Earth- to super-Earth-sized worlds orbiting extremely close to their host stars, completing an orbit in less than a single Earth day.

Much like Earth’s Moon, they are expected to be tidally locked, always showing the same face to their star.

Their dayside surfaces reach such extreme temperatures that silicate rocks melt — and even vaporize — creating conditions unlike anything in our Solar System.

These exotic worlds, easily observable due to their ultrashort orbital period, provide unique insights into the fundamental processes that shape planetary evolution.

“Lava planets are in such extreme orbital configurations that our knowledge of rocky planets in the Solar System does not directly apply, leaving scientists uncertain about what to expect when observing lava planets,” said Dr. Charles-Édouard Boukaré, a researcher at York University.

“Our simulations propose a conceptual framework for interpreting their evolution and provide scenarios to probe their internal dynamics and chemical changes over time.”

“These processes, though greatly amplified in lava planets, are fundamentally the same as those that shape rocky planets in our own Solar System.”

When rocks melt or vaporize, elements such as magnesium, iron, silicon, oxygen, sodium, and potassium partition differently between vapor, liquid, and solid phases.

The unique orbital configuration of lava planets maintains vapor-liquid and solid-liquid equilibria over billions of years, driving long-term chemical evolution.

Using unprecedented numerical simulations, the authors predict two end-member evolutionary states:

(i) fully molten interior (likely young planets): the atmosphere mirrors the bulk planetary composition, and heat transport within the molten interior keeps the nightside surface hot and dynamic;

(ii) mostly solid interior (likely older planets): only a shallow lava ocean remains on the dayside, and the atmosphere becomes depleted in elements such as sodium, potassium, and iron.

“We really hope we can observe and distinguish old lava planets from young lava planets with the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope,” Dr. Boukaré said.

“If we can do this, it would mark an important step toward moving beyond the traditional snapshot view of exoplanets.”

The study was published today in the journal Nature Astronomy.

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CÉ. Boukaré et al. The role of interior dynamics and differentiation on the surface and in the atmosphere of lava planets. Nat Astron, published online July 29, 2025; doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02617-4

Who’s ready for another space launch? The next cohort of astronauts are making their way to the International Space Station on Thursday, and the event will be live streamed in more places than usual. SpaceX is sending up Crew-11 to relieve Crew-10. You may remember Crew-10 as being the crew that relieved Crew-9, which had two stowaways on board who had been stuck in space for months. 

The launch is scheduled for July 31 at 12:09 p.m. EST from Kennedy’s Launch Complex 39A, barring any last-minute delays due to the weather or other factors.

NASA has been preparing for the launch for days, getting SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket into place and conducting a launch rehearsal, which includes a “static fire.” That’s when NASA burns the rockets to make sure they’re structurally sound, but keeps them pinned to the ground so they don’t fly away. Pre-flight coverage begins on NASA’s Kennedy Space Center social media pages. 

Crew-11 will send US astronauts Zena Cardman, Mike Fincke and Kimiya Yui up to space, along with Roscosmos cosmonaut Oleg Platonov. 

Once launched, the crew will head into Earth’s orbit, where they will remain for 39 hours. This is longer than is typical, as most ISS launches are only in orbit for under 24 hours. The reason is so the crew can line up with the ISS’ Harmony module precisely, allowing for a smoother docking. Once successfully onboard, the crew will spend a week with Crew-10 before the latter returns to Earth. 

How do I stream the SpaceX Crew-11 launch?

You’re in luck there, because it’s streaming in quite a few places. You can find the stream on NASA’s social media channels as well as NASA Plus. NASA Plus is also on Amazon’s Prime Video as part of its FAST selection of channels, so you can watch it there too. Other options include NASA TV’s YouTube channel and SpaceX’s social media accounts. 

NASA also recently reached a deal with Netflix to include NASA Plus programming on the streaming giant. So the Crew-11 launch will be available on Netflix as well if you prefer to go that route. The first launch live streamed on Netflix was the Progress 92 cargo mission that launched on July 3.

If you’re interested, here are the rest of the major spaceflights scheduled for this year.

A mysterious oceanic barrier is stopping some deep-sea jellyfish in the Arctic from reaching the Atlantic Ocean, a new study has found.

The animals, members of the jellyfish subspecies Botrynema brucei ellinorae, inhabit depths between 3,300 and 6,600 feet (1,000 to 2,000 meters) and can be divided into two groups based on whether individual specimens have a knob on their umbrella-like bell structure.

Researchers at a Long Island federal laboratory have completed a “milestone” phase of development on what they say will be a history-making telescope.

The LuSEE-Night

Officials at the Brookhaven National Laboratory announced the completion of the “major item of equipment” phase on the Lunar Surface Electromagnetics Experiment-Night, or LuSEE-Night.

The LuSEE-Night is a moon-based radio telescope that one official said would advance the new field of “space-based radio astronomy.”

Listening for Radio Waves

Developers intend for the LuSEE-Night to be able to survive on the far side of the moon, which alternates between 14 days of sunlight at temperatures of 280 degrees Fahrenheit and 14 days of darkness, when temperatures plummet to 280 degrees below zero.

However, the area is also shielded from radio interference from both the Earth and the sun, which could allow scientists to listen for radio waves that date back billions of years and, in turn, provide vital information about the history of the universe.

Surviving on the Far Side of the Moon

Brookhaven scientists outlined the strict and occasionally competing requirements of building a device capable of surviving in such harsh conditions, from the weight requirements needed for launch to the sophistication of its instruments.

Brookhaven scientists, in particular, custom-built the system’s radio spectrometer, which would allow the device to sense low-frequency radio waves.

Launch Expected in 2026

After final assembly is completed at Brookhaven, officials at a Utah State University lab plan to conduct an environmental test of the system this summer. Officials currently expect the LuSEE-Night to be launched aboard a Firefly Aerospace Blue Ghost 2 lander next year.

Image credit: Space Sciences Laboratory

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The Perseid meteor shower is one of the most anticipated showers of the year. It’s beloved by stargazers worldwide because it’s one of the most prolific – according to NASA, there could be up to 100 meteors per hour during the shower’s peak. 

Just one little bummer this year: the Perseids pretty much coincide with a bright, waning full moon, so moonlight could very well wash out the meteors. Nevertheless, if you’re keen to head out into the night to try your luck, here’s when, where, and how to catch the Perseid meteor shower in Asia in 2025. 

What is the Perseid meteor shower?

The Perseid meteor shower comes from the Comet Swift-Tuttle, which was first discovered in 1862. It orbits around the Sun about once every 133 years, leaving a wake of dust and particles as it goes. On its own journey around the sun, the Earth passes through this trail, causing the comet’s cosmic debris to collide with our atmosphere. As the debris burns up, it creates glowing streaks of light visible in the night sky, which is the meteor shower that we see.  

When can you see the Perseid meteor shower?

The Perseid meteor shower is active from mid-July until late August, but will peak on the night of August 12, before dawn on August 13. 

What time is best to see the Perseid meteor shower?

We recommend timing your meteor-gazing session between 3am to 6am – this is when the skies are the darkest and the shower is at its most intense. 

The best places in Asia to watch the Perseid meteor shower 

For the best chance of seeing the Perseid meteor shower, you need a place with dark skies and unobstructed views. Anywhere without tall buildings and trees or bright city lights should do, but if you’re down to travel to chase some meteors, consider these magical dark sky reserves and remote stargazing spots in Asia. 

The best ways to watch the Perseid meteor shower

Thankfully, you don’t need any special equipment to see the meteor shower. All you have to do is find the darkest place you can, and settle in to allow 30 minutes for your eyes to adjust to the darkness. Locate the Perseus constellation, but don’t stare directly at it. Instead, relax your gaze and take in the constellations around it – meteors further from their radiant are brighter and have longer trains. 

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Radiolysis induced by Galactic cosmic rays could provide a viable energy source for microbial metabolism in the subsurface environments of rocky planetary objects such as Mars, Europa and Enceladus, according to new research led by New York University Abu Dhabi.

Ionizing radiation is known to have a destructive effect on biology by causing damage to DNA, cells and the production of reactive oxygen species, among other things.

While direct exposure to high-radiation dose is indeed not favorable for biological activity, ionizing radiation can and, in some cases, is known to produce a number of biologically useful products.

One such mechanism is the production of biologically useful products via charged particle-induced radiolysis.

“We focused on what happens when cosmic rays hit water or ice underground,” said Dr. Dimitra Atri from New York University Abu Dhabi and colleagues from the University of Washington, the University of Tennessee, Rice University, and the Universidad Industrial de Santander.

“The impact breaks water molecules apart and releases tiny particles called electrons.”

“Some bacteria on Earth can use these electrons for energy, similar to how plants use sunlight.”

“This process is called radiolysis, and it can power life even in dark, cold environments with no sunlight.”

Using computer simulations, the researchers studied how much energy this process could produce on Mars and on the icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn.

These moons, which are covered in thick layers of ice, are believed to have water hidden below their surfaces.

The scientists found that Enceladus had the most potential to support life in this way, followed by Mars, and then by Europa.

“This discovery changes the way we think about where life might exist,” Dr. Atri said.

“Instead of looking only for warm planets with sunlight, we can now consider places that are cold and dark, as long as they have some water beneath the surface and are exposed to cosmic rays.”

“Life might be able to survive in more places than we ever imagined.”

In their study, the authors also introduce a new idea called the radiolytic habitable zone.

Unlike the traditional ‘Goldilocks zone’ — the area around a star where a planet could have liquid water on its surface — this new zone focuses on places where water exists underground and can be energized by cosmic radiation.

Since cosmic rays are found throughout space, this could mean there are many more places in the Universe where life could exist.

“The findings provide new guidance for future space missions,” the reserachers said.

“Instead of only looking for signs of life on the surface, scientists might also explore underground environments on Mars and the icy moons, using tools that can detect chemical energy created by cosmic radiation.”

“This research opens up exciting new possibilities in the search for life beyond Earth and suggests that even the darkest, coldest places in the Solar System could have the right conditions for life to survive.”

The study appears in the International Journal of Astrobiology.

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Dimitra Atri et al. 2025. Estimating the potential of ionizing radiation-induced radiolysis for microbial metabolism on terrestrial planets and satellites with rarefied atmospheres. International Journal of Astrobiology 24: e9; doi: 10.1017/S1473550425100025

MAKKAH: Saudi Arabia’s lush Asir mountains inspired the artistic vision of Arafat Al-Asimi. 

Highlighting her early artistic endeavors, Al-Asimi said that she enjoys using pastel colors to paint natural and heritage landscapes. The mountains, valleys, the color gradations of the forests and the region’s unique climate shaped her artistic imagination. 

Al-Asimi said that she feels most at home with nature and traditional landscape drawings, particularly those inspired by Asir, as they convey her deep sense of belonging and offer her psychological comfort and balance. 

She also shared her passion for incorporating Arabic calligraphy into her work, describing how it beautifully merges visual aesthetics with cultural identity. 

With a background in geography, Al-Asimi said that her passion for art extended far beyond her studies. 

She continued to develop her talent through self-practice, experimenting with different materials, engaging in artistic community activities, and attending exhibitions that contributed in developing her talent and shaping her artistic identity from an early age. 

The absence of an art major at her university was not an obstacle, but rather the engine for self-development, allowing her to cultivate a distinctive artistic style despite the lack of formal academic training in the field.

Speaking on challenges she faced at the beginning of her artistic career, Al-Asimi told Arab News that the most prominent of these were the lack of art specialization in university education, the lack of community and artistic support in the early stages of her career, and the difficulty of obtaining appropriate materials and tools. 

She also highlighted the challenge of proving herself as a female artist in a conservative environment, a struggle that required her to double her efforts to prove herself. However, she was able to overcome these challenges through persistence and continuous practice. 

Al-Asimi highlighted her participation in numerous exhibitions both within the Kingdom and internationally, describing these experiences as enriching. 

The events not only expanded her artistic vision, but also provided valuable opportunities for cultural exchange, enriching her portfolio with new horizons.

She said that family support in the early stages has had a significant impact on boosting her self-confidence. Community encouragement, even through simple attendance or interaction, is an important motivator for an artist to continue, she added. 

Societal awareness of the value of fine art has been growing in recent years, providing Saudi female artists with broader opportunities to express themselves and demonstrate their abilities, she said. 

Expressing her ambitions, Al-Asimi said that she seeks to expand her presence in Saudi Arabia and Gulf art scene, and take part in major upcoming exhibitions locally and internationally to showcase her experience, inspired by the Asir environment. 

She also hopes to hold a solo exhibition documenting her artistic development and conduct art workshops for young girls to support local talent.