Category: 8. Health

Have you ever wondered why some people who drink alcohol develop serious liver problems while others don’t? A study from University of Louisville researchers published in May in Toxicological Sciences suggests that the answer might be hidden in everyday sources such as drinking water, food packaging or even non-stick cookware.

Scientists at UofL, along with colleagues from Boston University and the University of Massachusetts Lowell, have identified perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) as a potential environmental factor that worsens alcohol-associated liver disease.

PFOS is a man-made chemical belonging to the group known as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), often referred to as “forever chemicals” because they do not readily break down in the environment or the human body. These substances have been used for decades in products such as non-stick cookware, water-resistant clothing, fast-food packaging, stain-resistant carpets and upholstery, and firefighting foams. Their extensive use has led to widespread contamination in the environment. Recent data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey show that PFAS can be detected in approximately 95% of Americans, sparking increasing concern about their long-term health effects.

At the same time, alcohol consumption remains a significant global health issue. According to the World Health Organization, alcohol contributes to nearly 3 million deaths worldwide each year, and its consumption continues to rise globally. In the U.S. alone, excessive alcohol use is responsible for approximately 95,000 deaths annually, making it one of the leading causes of preventable death and a major contributor to liver disease.

“Given the increasing prevalence of alcohol consumption and the widespread presence of PFAS in the environment, many individuals who drink alcohol may be inevitably exposed to these persistent pollutants. This makes it critically important to study how combined exposures to alcohol and environmental chemicals like PFOS might influence liver health,” said Matthew Cave, UofL professor of medicine and publication co-author.

Although it is well known that both alcohol and PFOS cause liver damage individually, little has been understood about their combined effects until now. Recent studies have shown that only about 35% of heavy drinkers develop severe forms of liver disease, indicating that additional factors such as genetics, sex, microbiome and environmental exposures may contribute to individual susceptibility.

“This work helps explain why two people with similar alcohol consumption may experience very different liver outcomes,” said Frederick Ekuban, assistant professor of medicine at UofL and first author of the study. “Environmental exposures like PFOS may be the missing link.”

Using animal models, the researchers simulated real-world exposures to both alcohol and PFOS. The study showed that co-exposure to alcohol and PFOS significantly increased fat accumulation and markers of liver damage, as well as clear signs of disrupted metabolism and activation of genes and pathways predicted to be associated with oxidative stress and cancer development.

In short, the study demonstrates that PFOS exposure can significantly worsen liver damage when combined with alcohol consumption. While this research used high levels of alcohol to understand the underlying mechanisms, the findings reveal important biological pathways that warrant further investigation across different drinking patterns.

The research team also found that PFOS interferes with the liver’s ability to manage fats, disrupts its natural protective and repair systems and activates pathways that promote liver injury.

“While the liver typically has a remarkable capacity to recover from alcohol-induced stress, PFOS appears to push that resilience beyond its limits, resulting in compounded and more severe damage,” said Jennifer Schlezinger professor of environmental health at Boston University and co-author of the publication.

Perhaps most concerning, the team discovered that 60% of all PFOS exposure ended up concentrated in the liver, exactly where alcohol damage occurs.

Ongoing research at UofL is examining how other PFAS compounds may interact with alcohol, whether males and females respond differently to these exposures and what the long-term consequences of combined exposures might be. The team is also exploring whether targeted therapies can be developed to prevent or mitigate this type of liver damage.

Although more studies are needed, people can take practical steps now to limit their exposure to PFAS. These include:

• Choose stainless steel or cast-iron cookware instead of non-stick pans
• Use water filters, especially in areas near industrial zones
• Avoid stain-resistant treatments on furniture and carpets
• Reduce consumption of packaged fast foods and microwave popcorn.
• Select household products with PFAS-free labels

Given that liver disease affects millions of Americans and is becoming more prevalent worldwide, the findings of this research support growing calls for stronger regulation and oversight of persistent chemical contaminants. By better understanding the hidden interactions between environmental toxicants and lifestyle behaviors, scientists and policymakers may be better equipped to prevent and treat liver disease.

Opioids like morphine are widely used in medical practice due to their powerful pain-relieving effects. However, they carry the risk of serious adverse effects such as respiratory depression and drug dependence. For this reason, Japan has strict regulations in place to ensure that these medications are prescribed only by authorized physicians.

In the United States, however, the opioid OxyContin was once prescribed frequently triggering a surge in the misuse of synthetic opioids such as fentanyl. As a result, the number of deaths caused by opioid overdose surpassed 80,000 in 2023, escalating into a national public health crisis now referred to as the “opioid crisis”.

Opioids may soon have a rival, however. A team of researchers at Kyoto University has recently discovered a novel analgesic, or pain reliever, which exerts its effect through an entirely different mechanism. Clinical development of their drug ADRIANA is currently underway as part of an international collaborative effort.

“If successfully commercialized, ADRIANA would offer a new pain management option that does not rely on opioids, contributing significantly to the reduction of opioid use in clinical settings,” says corresponding author Masatoshi Hagiwara, a specially-appointed professor at Kyoto University.

The research team was first inspired by substances that mimic noradrenaline, which is released in life-threatening situations and activates α2A-adrenoceptors to suppress pain. However, these pose a high risk of cardiovascular instability. After observing noradrenaline levels and α2B-adrenoceptors, the team hypothesized that selectively blocking α2B-adrenoceptors could elevate noradrenaline levels, leading to activation of α2A-adrenoceptors and resulting in pain relief without causing cardiovascular instability.

To identify selective inhibitors of α2B-adrenoceptors and measure the activity of individual α2-adrenoceptor subtypes, the researchers employed a novel technology known as the TGFα shedding assay and conducted compound screening leading to their discovery of the world’s first selective α2B-adrenoceptor antagonist.

After success in administering the compound to mice and conducting non-clinical studies to assess its safety, physician-led clinical trials were conducted at Kyoto University Hospital. Both the Phase I trial in healthy volunteers and the Phase II trial in patients with postoperative pain following lung cancer surgery yielded highly promising results.

Building on these outcomes, preparations are now underway for a large-scale Phase II clinical trial in the United States, in collaboration with BTB Therapeutics, Inc, a Kyoto University-originated venture company.

As Japan’s first non-opioid analgesic, ADRIANA has the potential not only to relieve severe pain for patients worldwide but could also play a meaningful role in addressing the opioid crisis — a pressing social issue in the United States — and thus contribute to international public health efforts.

“We aim to evaluate the analgesic effects of ADRIANA across various types of pain and ultimately make this treatment accessible to a broader population of patients suffering from chronic pain,” says Hagiwara.

The stress preterm infants experience at birth can carry on throughout a lifetime and cause negative health impacts later in life, necessitating the routine inclusion of birth history in medical records and the development of clinical guidelines for adults born preterm, the longest continuously running study of individuals born preterm in the United States has shown.

University of Rhode Island College of Nursing Professor Amy D’Agata is continuing the work that began in the 1980s with a group of babies born preterm at Women & Infants Hospital. Involving 215 people born 35 years ago-including a control group of full-term babies, and preterm babies born at 22 to 36 weeks-the study tracks the successes and difficulties preterm babies continue to face into adulthood, and compares them to the group of participants born full term. The project has so far garnered more than $10 million in research grant funding.

D’Agata, who took over as principal researcher after the retirement of Professor Emeritus Mary Sullivan, has published the most recent results in the Journal of the American Medical Association. The published paper focuses physiological and psychological health outcomes that D’Agata and her team of researchers have identified as the study participants approach 40 years old. Those born preterm have shown a higher risk of high blood pressure, high cholesterol, increased abdominal fat, and low bone density. Psychologically, the group tends to internalize problems, often resulting in increased levels of depression and anxiety.

“Preterm birth is not just a neonatal issue. It, in fact, is a lifelong condition,” D’Agata said the study shows. “For individuals who have medical complications early in life, we are now seeing an increased risk of different chronic health issues later in life. We are now realizing that there is a very strong link between what happens to you early in life and later health outcomes.”

The study offers important takeaways for health-care clinicians, who are not always aware a patient was born preterm because birth history is not commonly included in adult medical records. D’Agata’s study is showing the need to include the information, and to develop adult screening guidelines for individuals who have a history of preterm birth. The work is also helping people who have been impacted by preterm birth understand that their birth history should be included in their medical records and should be considered in the context of their overall health.

In this country, millions of people born preterm have grown into adulthood and are now seeing clinicians across primary care and various specialties, yet providers rarely ask about birth history. We are urging that birth history be included as a standard question on every adult intake form. Health cannot be fully optimized if we overlook such a critical assessment piece. Understanding an individual’s birth history, alongside growing research identifying increased health risks for those born preterm and the development of targeted clinical guidelines, will advance health equity for survivors of early birth. We believe a paradigm shift is needed in health care that recognizes preterm birth as a chronic condition requiring lifelong monitoring and support.”

Amy D’Agata, University of Rhode Island College of Nursing Professor

While the study’s most recent results were just published in JAMA Network Open in July, D’Agata is already looking toward the next set of findings. Continuing to work with fellow URI professor Justin Parent, D’Agata is examining epigenetic age acceleration among individuals born preterm. Understanding any differences in epigenetic aging that may exist between preterm and full-term born adults may be another approach to understanding long-term health.

When faced with difficult tasks, sometimes people hit a mental wall and make the decision to “sleep on it.” Returning to the task after sleeping, they often perform better. Why? Rhythmic brain activity during sleep transforms task-related information into stronger, longer-term memory. A new JNeurosci paper on research led by Dara Manoach, from Harvard Medical School, advances understanding of where in the brain this rhythmic activity appears to improve motor learning. 

In the study, 25 participants learned a typing sequence while the researchers recorded their brain activity. After training, brain recordings continued as study participants napped. During sleep, cortical brain areas active during training had more rhythmic activity. Increased brain rhythms in these areas correlated with how much participants improved in the task after the nap. Notably, pre- and postnap task performance had different neural correlates; learning during training was associated with increased brain rhythms in movement execution areas during sleep, while postnap performance was linked to increased brain rhythms in movement planning areas during sleep. Says Manoach, “Brain rhythms occur everywhere in the brain during sleep. But the rhythms in these regions increase after learning, presumably to stabilize and enhance memory.” 

The researchers theorize from their work that brain rhythms in motor execution areas may represent the memory of a task, while the rhythms in motor planning areas improve future performance. 

Temporomandibular disorder (TMD) limits jaw function and is so painful that it lessens the quality of life. Botulinum toxin-also known as botox-is emerging as an effective treatment option, but there are concerns about side effects, like muscle dysfunction. Eungyung Kim and Yu Shin Kim, from the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, led a study using a mouse model of TMD to explore the possibility of using botox as a treatment. 

In their JNeurosci paper, the researchers discovered that injecting botox directly into the male mouse temporomandibular joint (TMJ) instead of surrounding muscle tissue reduced TMD-related pain without causing side effects. More specifically, hypersensitivity and pain from TMD were mitigated without impairing general movement abilities and feeding behavior. The researchers also found that the botox injections they delivered reduced TMD-related neural activity. On a molecular level, mice that received botox injections into the TMJ had less expression of proteins that promote pain. 

While sex differences remain unexplored, according to the authors, this work suggests it may be possible to overcome botox side effects by avoiding muscle tissue and injecting the toxin directly into the TMJ. 

A Kyoto University research team has developed a pain-reliever that is comparable to morphine but does not have serious side effects.

Morphine, often administered to cancer patients, has serious adverse effects such as breathing issues and addiction.

According to the team, the newly developed drug, Adriana, is a groundbreaking painkiller, which works on a completely different mechanism to morphine and other existing synthetic opioids. The drug has the potential to revolutionize pain control in the medical field, the team said.

The team also expects that the drug will help resolve the so-called opioid epidemic, in which a large number of deaths occur mainly due to overdoses of opioids.

Its findings were published in the online edition of the U.S. journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

When a person encounters a life-threatening situation, norepinephrine, an organic chemical secreted from the brain, suppresses pain.

For its study, the team focused on the human body regulating oversecretion of norepinephrine. By introducing a new research technology, the team succeeded in developing a drug blocking such a control function for the first time in the world.

In a clinical trial conducted at the Kyoto University Hospital between January 2023 and December 2024, the team confirmed the new drug’s efficiency to a certain extent for patients including 20 who underwent lung cancer surgery.

The team plans to conduct a clinical trial in the United States for 400 postsurgery patients in 2026, aiming to put Adriana into practical use in 2028.

“We hope that the new drug will help cancer patients who previously had no choice but to use opioids live their lives without pain as well as a need to worry about addiction or serious side effects,” Masatoshi Hagiwara, a professor at the university, said.

Introduction
Taxonomy and ecology
Virulence factors and pathogenic mechanisms
Routes of infection and disease manifestations
Diagnosis and treatment
Epidemiology and risk factors
Public health challenges
Prevention strategies
Conclusions
References
Further reading

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Vibrio vulnificus is a life-threatening marine bacterium, increasingly linked to seafood consumption and wound infections, especially in vulnerable people. Its geographic range and public health impact are growing due to climate and environmental change.

Flesh-eating bacterial infection. Image Credit: Lightspring / Shutterstock.com 

Introduction

Vibrio species, particularly Vibrio vulnificus, are increasingly recognized as important and sometimes severe public-health hazards capable of causing rapid septicemia, gastroenteritis, and necrotizing wound infections. Climate‑driven proliferation and dietary habits have converged to increase the incidence of vibriosis and related septic shock among high-risk individuals in coastal communities throughout the world.¹

Taxonomy and ecology

Vibrio vulnificus is a Gram‑negative halophilic member of the family Vibrionaceae that thrives in warm, low‑salinity estuaries where tidal mixing concentrates organic matter. The curved rods of Vibrio vulnificus are routinely recovered from brackish coastal waters and bio‑accumulated by filter‑feeding shellfish. In particular, the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) acts as both an environmental reservoir and a vehicle for human exposure.

Eastern Oyster. Crassostrea virginica. Image Credit: Gilbert S. Grant / Shutterstock

Nutrient‑rich runoff, suspended particulates, and other anthropogenic inputs further contribute to Vibrio vulnificus proliferation by supplying carbon nutrients and attachment surfaces. The organism is rarely detected in waters below 15 °C and is most abundant above 20 °C. Taken together, temperature, salinity, and nutrient availability interact synergistically to modulate the ecology and health risk of this opportunistic pathogen.²

Virulence factors and pathogenic mechanisms

Vibrio vulnificus invades hosts with a multi-layered arsenal. A surface capsular polysaccharide (CPS) masks complement fragments to avoid macrophage engulfment, thereby protecting the bacterium from serum killing.³

Secreted pore‑forming toxins, led by Vibrio vulnificus hemolysin A (VvhA), rupture cell membranes, precipitate dermal necrosis, and induce a cytokine storm that can eventually progress to septic shock. Other virulence determinants include the metalloprotease VvpE, multifunctional RTX toxins, and additional outer-membrane proteins that contribute to tissue invasion and immune evasion. Importantly, systemic dissemination is dependent upon iron levels, as the catechol siderophore vulnibactin and its outer‑membrane receptor obtain iron from transferrin and lactoferrin to ensure bloodstream proliferation.³

In estuarine niches, high levels of cyclic di‑guanosine monophosphate (c‑di‑GMP) and type IV pili contribute to the development of biofilm matrices that shield cells between hosts. Expression of these traits is determined by autoinducer‑2 synthase LuxS and small colony regulator (SmcR) quorum‑sensing circuitry, as mutants lacking either regulator exhibit significantly reduced cytotoxicity and require higher inocula to cause lethal disease.³

Routes of infection and disease manifestations

Vibrio vulnificus infects humans through ingestion or percutaneous exposure. For example, ingestion of raw or undercooked shellfish, especially oysters, deposits high bacterial loads into the gastrointestinal tract.

In most healthy people, this leads to a brief gastroenteritis characterized by diarrhea, cramps, and vomiting. Importantly, Vibrio vulnificus can cross the intestinal barrier to reach the bloodstream, which leads to primary septicemia (PS) with a fatality rate of up to 60%. However, bloodstream infection develops primarily in immunocompromised or chronically ill patients, and the overall incidence of septicemia is low among healthy adults.

Percutaneous exposure to seawater or seafood contaminated with Vibrio vulnificus can lead to infection by entering the bloodstream through an open wound. Local infection begins with painful swelling and hemorrhagic bullae that can progress within hours to necrotizing fasciitis, sometimes necessitating amputation.⁴

Patients diagnosed with chronic liver disease, diabetes mellitus, malignancy, renal dysfunction, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), or other forms of immunosuppression are at a significantly greater risk of fulminant PS due to their compromised innate defenses that allow bacterial growth.

Risk of Vibrio vulnificus infection is particularly high during warm summer and autumn when bacterial replication accelerates. As a result, seafood handlers, swimmers, and coastal residents are advised to avoid consuming raw shellfish, promptly disinfect cuts, and seek urgent care for spreading limb pain. Early culture‑guided antibiotics and, when indicated, aggressive surgical debridement remain vital to survival and intensive support.⁴

Image Credit: Kateryna Kon / Shutterstock.com 

Diagnosis and treatment

Timely recognition of Vibrio vulnificus infection is based on microbiological confirmation, following which immediate and aggressive management is essential. Blood and wound samples, including blister fluid, should be cultured on thiosulfate‑citrate‑bile‑salts‑sucrose agar.

Gram stain of the specimen often reveals banana‑shaped Gram‑negative rods. Since conventional culturing requires up to 48 hours to complete, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) methods are frequently used to identify the pathogen within hours to accurately guide therapy.

Any broad‑spectrum agent active against Gram‑negative bacilli can be used to treat Vibrio vulnificus. However, doxycycline combined with a third‑generation cephalosporin (such as ceftriaxone or ceftazidime) is widely recommended due to the organism’s rapid doubling time. Fluoroquinolones are an alternative. Imaging is often used to determine a diagnosis of gas gangrene, whereas laboratory tests screen for coagulopathy, hepatic, or renal dysfunction.⁵

Debridement of devitalized tissue under general anesthesia should begin as soon as feasible after diagnosis. Primary limb amputation is advised if the fascia and muscle are overtly necrotic or the haemodynamic status deteriorates. Throughout resuscitation, clinicians will prioritize circulatory stabilization and support in an intensive care setting to prevent or reverse septic shock and multiorgan failure.⁵

Epidemiology and risk factors

Vibrio vulnificus thrives in warm, brackish seas and can be found along many temperate‑to‑tropical shorelines. In the United States, these infections have primarily been reported along the Gulf of Mexico; however, Vibrio vulnificus has also been detected along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, Hawaii, and, occasionally, inland after storm flooding.

In East Asia, especially Japan and China, Vibrio vulnificus prevalence in seafood often exceeds 30%, which is significantly greater than its levels in West Asian waters. Peak reporting occurs between May and October, a period marked by high sea‑surface temperatures of 20-25 °C and high levels of bacterial contamination.^6,7

Host factors often determine infection outcomes, as adults with alcoholic cirrhosis are 80-and 200-times more likely to become infected and die after eating raw oysters than healthy diners, respectively. The 80-fold risk refers to infection, and the 200-fold risk to mortality. Other high‑risk groups include people diagnosed with hemochromatosis, thalassemia major, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, or medication‑induced immunosuppression.^6,7

As oceans warm, fisheries and recreational waters deliver Vibrio vulnificus to new latitudes where seafood supply chains and coastal wounds facilitate its circulation. These converging environmental and host factors lead to summertime surges of fulminant septicemia and necrotizing wound infections that have been increasingly reported from the Gulf Coast to East Asia and other warming estuaries throughout the world.^6,7

Public health challenges

Surveillance efforts for Vibrio vulnificus are primarily concentrated in the United States and Europe. Comparatively, low‑income countries lack routine testing, which leads to the under‑reporting of cases and weaker risk models.

Climate change is also transporting the bacterium into waters once considered safe. For example, heat‑driven blooms have pushed infections as far north as sub‑Arctic Finland and expanded suitable coastlines by about 392 km² since 1982.

Raw seafood, particularly filter‑feeding oysters, can concentrate Vibrio vulnificus, thereby serving as a potent vehicle for infection. Economically, fulminant septicemia and necrotizing fasciitis often demand prolonged intensive care unit (ICU) management, which makes Vibrio vulnificus one of the most expensive marine‑borne pathogens per case, with an estimated annual burden valued at over $267 million USD.⁸

New study find cases of flesh eating bacteria may risePlay

Prevention strategies

Vulnerable patient populations are advised to avoid raw or under‑cooked shellfish altogether to reduce their risk of infection. Cooking shellfish thoroughly to an internal temperature of at least 63 °C (145 °F) effectively kills Vibrio species. Individuals with open wounds, recent piercings, or tattoos must ensure that these areas remain dry and protected while swimming, wading, or handling seafood to prevent bacterial entry.

Federal regulators are expected to perform continuous water‑quality monitoring and impose prompt harvesting closures in the event that water temperature, salinity, or bacterial counts exceed safety limits. Sustained public health campaigns in coastal and endemic areas should teach safe seafood practices, wound care, and early symptom recognition.⁹ Note: Reference 9 primarily addresses prevention in aquaculture; for human public health, guidance is available from CDC and WHO sources.

Conclusions

Rising sea‑surface temperatures, altered salinity, and nutrient‑rich runoff are expanding the ecological range of Vibrio vulnificus, thereby increasing the risk of infection outside of traditional Gulf Coast and East Asian hotspots.

Protecting public health requires coordinated action across healthcare, environmental monitoring, aquaculture, and food‑safety sectors. These efforts must incorporate routine coastal surveillance, rapid detection technologies, stricter shellfish harvest controls, climate‑informed warning systems, and ongoing community education to ensure the early detection and mitigation of future outbreaks. 

References

1. Igbinosa, E. O., & Okoh, A. I. (2008). Emerging Vibrio species: an unending threat to public health in developing countries. Research in microbiology. 159(7-8) 495-506. DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2008.07.001, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0923250808001137
2. Quigg, A., Gaona-Hernández, A., Hochman, M. S., Ray, S. M., & Schwarz, J. R. (2025). Applied Time Series Analyses (2000–2017) of Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus (Pathogenic and Non-Pathogenic Strains) in the Eastern Oyster, Crassostrea virginica. Bacteria. 4(2). DOI: 10.3390/bacteria4020017, https://www.mdpi.com/2674-1334/4/2/17
3. Jones MK, Oliver JD. (2009). Vibrio vulnificus: Disease and Pathogenesis. Infect Immun. 77 (5). DOI: 10.1128/iai.01046-08, https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/iai.01046-08
4. Zu, S., Lin, L., Wen, M. H., Zhao, H. R., Hu, X. M., & Zheng, L. (2024). Secondary septic shock caused by Vibrio vulnificus infection: A case report. LabMed Discovery. 1(2). DOI: 10.1016/j.lmd.2024.100023, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S3050474024000235
5. Matsuoka, Y., Nakayama, Y., Yamada, T., Nakagawachi, A., Matsumoto, K., Nakamura, K., Sugiyama, K., Tanigawa, Y., Kakiuchi, Y. and Sakaguchi, Y. (2013). Accurate diagnosis and treatment of Vibrio vulnificus infection: a retrospective study of 12 cases. Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 17. 07-12. DOI: 10.1016/j.bjid.2012.07.017, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S141386701200219X
6. Clemence MA, Guerrant RL. 2015. Infections and intoxications from the ocean: risks of the shore. Microbiol Spectrum. 3(6). DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.iol5-0008-2015, https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/microbiolspec.iol5-0008-2015
7. Tanveer, M., Ntakiyisumba, E., & Won, G. (2024). Prevalence and risk factors of seafood-borne Vibrio vulnificus in Asia: a systematic review with meta-analysis and meta-regression. Frontiers in Microbiology. 15. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1363560, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/microbiology/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1363560/full
8. Jayakumar, J. M., Martinez-Urtaza, J., Brumfield, K. D., Jutla, A. S., Colwell, R. R., Cordero, O. X., & Almagro-Moreno, S. (2024) Climate change and Vibrio vulnificus dynamics: A blueprint for infectious diseases. PLoS Pathog. 20(12). DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012767, https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1012767
9. Xu, K., Wang, Y., Yang, W., Cai, H., Zhang, Y., & Huang, L. (2023). Strategies for Prevention and Control of Vibriosis in Asian Fish Culture. Vaccines. 11(1). DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11010098

Further Reading