Category: 7. Science

Despite being known as the Red Planet, Mars shows off its swirling yellows, oranges and browns in a new satellite photo from the European Space Agency (ESA). The Earth-toned surface also reveals an impact crater and four sneaky dust devils making their way across the region.

The Rothko-like image was taken by a high-resolution camera on ESA’s Mars Express orbiter and captures Arcadia Planitia, an area of Mars critical to research about the planet’s past and its potential to house humans in the future.

Arcadia Planitia

IN A NUTSHELL

🔭 Astronomers may have identified a promising candidate for the elusive Planet Nine, found beyond Neptune. 🛰️ The discovery was made by analyzing archival data from the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) and the AKARI satellite. ⚖️ Despite the excitement, there is significant skepticism regarding the candidate’s orbit, which does not align with predictions for Planet Nine. 🔍 The upcoming Vera C. Rubin Observatory could provide definitive evidence to confirm or refute the existence of this mysterious planet.

The quest for discovering the elusive Planet Nine has captivated astronomers and the public alike for years. Recent findings have rekindled this excitement, as astronomers claim they have identified a promising candidate for this mysterious celestial body. While this potential discovery is thrilling, skepticism remains. Is this the breakthrough we’ve been waiting for, or just another cosmic mirage?

The Search for Planet Nine: A Cosmic Puzzle

The theory of Planet Nine emerged to explain the unusual orbits of certain objects in the Kuiper Belt, a region beyond Neptune filled with icy bodies. The existence of a large, unseen planet could account for the gravitational forces affecting these orbits. However, proving this hypothesis has been an astronomical challenge. Despite numerous efforts, direct observational evidence remains elusive.

Recently, researchers delved into archival data from old satellite missions to hunt for Planet Nine. By analyzing infrared images from the 1983 Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) and the 2006-2011 AKARI satellite, they identified a peculiar dot moving across the sky. This dot, consistent with a distant planet’s movement, has sparked renewed hope in the scientific community.

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Controversy and Skepticism: A Divided Community

The prospect of a ninth planet is undeniably exciting, but it is not without controversy. Renowned astronomer Mike Brown, who was instrumental in proposing the Planet Nine hypothesis, remains skeptical about the recent findings. Brown’s calculations suggest that the object’s orbit does not align with the predicted path of Planet Nine, casting doubt on its identity as the hypothesized planet.

Brown’s skepticism is rooted in the significant tilt of the object’s orbit, which deviates from the expected 15 to 20 degrees. This misalignment implies that the newfound object may not exert the gravitational influence necessary to explain the Kuiper Belt’s anomalies. Despite these discrepancies, the astronomical community remains cautiously optimistic, recognizing that further observations could provide clarity.

“Mars Lost Its Water Here”: NASA Captures Ancient Blast That May Explain How the Red Planet Turned Into a Dusty Wasteland

Analyzing the Data: From Dots to Planets

Transforming a mere dot in the sky into a recognized planet requires meticulous analysis. The team behind the recent study painstakingly sifted through satellite data, identifying potential candidates for Planet Nine. After eliminating known objects, they focused on a single dot that appeared in both the IRAS and AKARI datasets.

This candidate, characterized by consistent colors and brightness across images, suggests the presence of a singular object captured by both satellites. However, follow-up observations are crucial to determine the object’s full orbit and confirm its planetary status. The scientific method demands rigorous verification, and this potential discovery is no exception.

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The Future of Planetary Discovery: New Horizons

The search for Planet Nine is set to enter a new era with the advent of the Vera C. Rubin Observatory in Chile. Equipped with the world’s largest digital camera, this state-of-the-art facility will peer deeper into space than ever before. Scheduled to open in 2025, the observatory may finally offer definitive evidence regarding Planet Nine’s existence.

Researchers anticipate that the observatory’s enhanced capabilities will either confirm the presence of Planet Nine or debunk the hypothesis altogether. This pivotal moment in astronomy could reshape our understanding of the solar system’s architecture, bringing us closer to unraveling the mysteries of the cosmos.

The quest for Planet Nine epitomizes the relentless human spirit to explore the unknown. As astronomers continue their search, the potential discovery of this enigmatic planet could revolutionize our understanding of the solar system. Will the Vera C. Rubin Observatory finally settle the debate, or will Planet Nine remain an elusive specter in the vast expanse of space? The answer may be just around the cosmic corner.

Our author used artificial intelligence to enhance this article.

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The Arctic has always seemed like the perfect place to hide secrets. Thick ice, biting winds, and months of darkness. For years, people believed that during the coldest ice ages, the Arctic Ocean vanished beneath an enormous ice shelf, one as thick as a skyscraper is tall.

That idea has stuck around for decades. A slab of ice, nearly a kilometer deep, covering the entire Arctic? It sounded dramatic. But not every dramatic story survives forever. A new study now shatters this icy myth.

In a study published in the journal Science Advances, scientists explain why this old theory no longer holds up. Their findings suggest something else happened during the last 750,000 years.

The Arctic, even in its most brutal days, wasn’t entirely sealed under thick ice. Instead, it had patches of open water. Life kept going. The sea ice came and went with the seasons.

Ancient mud shows open Arctic seas

The researchers dug deep. They drilled into the seafloor of the Arctic-Atlantic gateway and the Nordic Seas. There, buried in the mud, they found tiny fingerprints left by algae.

Some of these algae bloom only in open waters. Others live under seasonal sea ice, the kind that melts and freezes every year. These ancient traces told a clear story.

“Our sediment cores show that marine life was active even during the coldest times,” said Jochen Knies, lead author of the study from UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø.

“That tells us there must have been light and open water at the surface. You wouldn’t see that if the entire Arctic was locked under a kilometre-thick slab of ice.”

That’s not all they found. A molecule called IP25 showed up again and again in the sediments. This molecule comes from algae that thrive in seasonal sea ice. Its steady presence revealed a world where sea ice wasn’t permanent. It came. It melted. It returned again.

Arctic life survived through ice ages

Sea ice wasn’t the only thing that moved with the seasons. The ocean itself stayed alive. Phytoplankton, the tiny floating plants of the sea, kept growing, even when the cold hit hard.

Biomarkers of phytoplankton like epi brassicasterol and dinosterol showed up consistently in the sediment cores. These tiny clues pointed to a surprising fact. Life did not vanish during glaciations. It slowed down, but it never stopped.

Even during the Last Glacial Maximum, around 21,000 years ago, the sea ice still followed a seasonal rhythm. The same thing happened about 140,000 years ago during an even colder spell.

The Arctic breathed. It froze in winter. It opened in summer. And where light could sneak through, life flourished.

Some giant icebergs also roamed the seas during these cold spells. They were like wandering giants, breaking free from Greenland and the Canadian Arctic.

The icebergs sometimes got stuck on shallow shelves, leaving deep marks on the seafloor. Yet, these icebergs were visitors, not rulers. They never formed a permanent lid over the entire ocean.

Arctic ice was not permanent

To double-check their findings, the scientists turned to climate models. They used the AWI Earth System Model, a detailed computer simulation of ancient climates.

These simulations showed the same thing the sediments revealed. Even during extreme cold, warm Atlantic waters kept sneaking into the Arctic. This flow of water stopped the ocean from freezing solid.

“The models support what we found in the sediments,” said Knies. “Even during these extreme glaciations, warm Atlantic water still flowed into the Arctic gateway. This helped keep some parts of the ocean from freezing over completely.”

The models also captured the restless movement of sea ice. It spread in winter. It melted back in summer. It drifted along powerful ocean currents like the Transpolar Drift and the Beaufort Gyre.

A glimpse of the Arctic at its coldest

There was one chapter in this icy story that stood out. It happened during Marine Isotope Stage 16, about 650,000 years ago. That’s when the biomarkers nearly vanished.

It looked as if the Arctic locked itself down for a brief time. No sign of open water. No hint of seasonal ice. Just endless cold.

This period lines up with the coldest known stretch of the Quaternary period. Carbon dioxide levels dropped to their lowest point, around 180 parts per million. Everything about this time screams extreme cold.

“There may have been short-lived ice shelves in some parts of the Arctic during especially severe cold phases,” said Knies. “But we don’t see any sign of a single, massive ice shelf that covered everything for thousands of years.”

Giant ice shelf theory now disproved

For years, scientists pointed to strange patterns on the seafloor as proof of an ancient Arctic ice shelf. Deep scours, ridges, and grooves looked like evidence of ice pressing down on the ocean floor.

But this study offers a new explanation. Those marks may have come from huge icebergs drifting through the Arctic. These giants could easily gouge the seafloor during their journeys.

The researchers also stress a crucial difference. Sea ice is not the same as ice shelves. Sea ice forms and melts every year. Ice shelves are thick, massive slabs of ice that grow from glaciers on land.

If the Arctic ever had an ice shelf, it likely existed long ago – perhaps during the Mid Pleistocene transition between 950,000 and 790,000 years ago. Since then, the Arctic has danced between ice and water, never staying frozen solid for long.

Arctic’s past shows it may survive future

This isn’t just a story about ancient ice. It’s also a warning for today. The Arctic is changing fast. The more we understand its past, the better we can predict its future.

“These past patterns help us understand what’s possible in future scenarios,” said Knies. “We need to know how the Arctic behaves under stress and what tipping points to watch for as the Arctic responds to a warming world.”

The Arctic has shown time and again that it doesn’t like to sit still. Even at its coldest, it found ways to stay partly open. It allowed life to hold on.

Today, the Arctic faces a new kind of challenge. Warming is accelerating faster than anything in the past. But this study reminds us that the Arctic has always been more dynamic than we thought. It has never been just a frozen wasteland.

Its icy history tells a story of change, survival, and resilience. The future may still surprise us, just like its hidden past has done.

The study is published in the journal Science Advances.

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Antarctic sea ice used to advance and retreat with seasonal regularity, but the rhythm has faltered. Scientists counted three record‑low summer ice seasons between 2017 and 2023, a run without precedent in four decades of satellite observations.

Dr. Edward Doddridge of the Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, has described the wider fallout of Antarctic sea ice loss in the journal PNAS Nexus.

“Antarctic sea ice appears to be changing; in the last decade, we have observed both record highs and record lows in Antarctic sea ice coverage. This article addresses the impacts of extreme lows in Antarctic summer sea ice coverage,” wrote Dr. Doddridge.

Sea ice loss impacts global climate

Sea ice is bright, and its high albedo bounces much of the Sun’s energy back to space. When dark ocean replaces that mirror, extra heat soaks in and lingers beneath the surface, nudging global temperatures upward.

The frozen cover also braces the coastline. Pack ice and the more stationary land‑fast variety absorb the punch of storm waves that would otherwise flex and crack vulnerable ice shelves, slowing the feed of inland glaciers into the sea.

How fast sea ice is shrinking

Dr. Doddridge’s team combined satellite records, Argo float profiles, and high‑resolution climate models.

The researchers showed that a single summer loss of 100,000 square miles of ice correlates with roughly six extra tabular icebergs that year, a figure the oceanographer calls “strikingly linear for a system famous for surprises.”

“With Antarctic sea ice providing climate and ecosystem services on regional and planetary scales, sustained and long‑term observations to accurately predict and potentially mitigate the impacts of climate change on this region should be a global scientific priority,” said Dr. Doddridge.

Model runs also revealed heat anomalies that persisted for three to four summers after the 2016‑17 plunge. That lingering warmth slows winter refreezing and suggests thresholds beyond which recovery is not quick or guaranteed.

Melting ice triggers ocean heating

Open water absorbs more solar energy, stratifying the upper ocean. Sensors show warming and freshening down to 1,300 feet after recent low‑ice summers, altering the formation of Antarctic Intermediate Water that helps lock away excess atmospheric heat and carbon.

Less sea ice also means fewer brine‑rich plumes sinking to ventilate the ocean interior. If that overturning slows, climate sensitivity could climb as the deep Pacific takes up less anthropogenic heat.

For many species, sea ice is both dining room and nursery. Larval krill feed on sea‑ice algae and hide from predators in its under‑surface; years with scant winter ice yield poor recruitment the following spring.

Emperor penguins suffered near‑total breeding failure in parts of the Bellingshausen Sea when the 2022 ice broke up before chicks had grown waterproof feathers.

Seals that haul out to molt face a similar squeeze as large floes fragment into smaller rafts with little room to rest or escape orcas.

Sea ice loss reshapes the food chain

Recent satellite and float data confirm that changes in ice extent are linked to shifts in phytoplankton bloom timing and intensity.

These microscopic plants form the foundation of the Antarctic food web, supporting everything from krill to whales, but the bloom response to ice loss is inconsistent across regions.

Some areas saw higher chlorophyll-a levels, signaling stronger blooms, especially near the coast where ice retreat was early and meltwater brought nutrients.

In other regions, despite longer open water seasons, blooms were weaker – likely due to deeper mixed layers or cloudier skies that reduced light for growth.

More than 4 million square kilometers of sea ice may support under-ice blooms, according to BGC‑Argo float measurements. These hidden blooms affect not only the carbon cycle but also cloud formation, altering how the region cools or warms the atmosphere.

Shipping, tourism, and fishing

The wave‑exposed coastlines calve more icebergs, rerouting shipping lanes and occasionally blocking access to research bases.

Tourism operators, less constrained by thick pack ice, have already logged more high‑latitude port calls during low‑ice summers, widening the footprint of black‑carbon emissions and invasive species risk.

Commercial krill fisheries may also chase pole‑ward stocks, complicating conservation plans around the Antarctic Peninsula.

Meanwhile, national programs are rethinking resupply windows as land‑fast ice, once a sturdy seasonal highway, thins and breaks weeks earlier than it did in the 1990s.

What happens if ice keeps shrinking

Dr. Doddridge and colleagues list circumpolar ice‑thickness monitoring as the single biggest data gap. Without it, models cannot pin down when volume, not just area, might cross a tipping point.

Public interest is already reacting; online searches for “Antarctic sea ice” hit a record peak in July 2023, a pulse researchers link to rising climate anxiety.

Better forecasts could temper fear with facts, but only if satellites, floats, and shore stations keep streaming year‑round measurements.

For now, the Southern Ocean’s frozen skin appears to be sliding toward a leaner state. Whether that new normal stabilizes or spirals depends on how fast the world reins in greenhouse‑gas emissions, a decision that will be felt from Hobart laboratories to emperor penguin rookeries.

The study is published in the journal PNAS Nexus.

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Gel manicures have turned into a tiny luxury that fits between lunch breaks and school runs. The ultraviolet or near‑ultraviolet lamps that harden glossy manicure coatings do the job in about four minutes, so the routine feels harmless.

The dryers bathe fingertips in swift pulses of light, but until recently few people asked what those pulses do to the skin that holds the nails. A new laboratory study brings unsettling answers.

The new work was led by photochemist Dr. María Laura Dántola at the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Physical‑Chemical Research (INIFTA), part of Argentina’s National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET).

Studying manicure lamps

Serrano’s team placed common skin molecules, including tyrosinase, inside a chamber that mimicked a salon lamp and zapped them for the same four‑minute cycle used in most gel services.

All targets, from amino acids to lipids, emerged chemically altered and less able to perform their jobs.

“These devices are used without any controls or regulations requiring manufacturers to report on the potential risks of frequent exposure,” cautioned Dántola and colleagues.

One of the starkest changes hit tyrosinase, the enzyme that drives production of melanin, a pigment that shields DNA from solar radiation.

The researchers also measured how fast the altered molecules sparked oxidative stress reactions that can shred cell membranes. Reaction rates jumped within seconds, confirming that harm starts long before a hand is removed from the booth.

Why photosensitization matters

Photosensitization happens when a molecule absorbs light then transfers that energy to oxygen, creating reactive species. Those species slice through DNA, proteins, and lipids with no regard for cell repair cycles.

Because tyrosinase sits at the start of melanin synthesis, even small interruptions amplify downstream damage. Losing melanin’s natural sunscreen effect makes every future dose of sunlight or lamp light more hazardous.

Many over‑the‑counter skincare ingredients, including retinoids and some antibiotics, can enhance photosensitization.

People who use them may face higher risks because their skin already carries extra light‑reactive compounds.

Tyrosinase, melanin and lost defense

Tyrosinase flips the chemical switches that turn the amino acid tyrosine into melanin granules. When the lamp’s photons broke those switches, the team saw melanin output stall.

Without melanin the skin compensates poorly for incoming ultraviolet, so photo‑aging and cancer risk rise. The altered enzyme also disrupts color balance, explaining reports of blotchy pigmentation after frequent gel sessions.

Manicure lamps are very bright

Bench measurements showed the lamp delivered a dose of UVA radiation around 368–400 nanometers, the same band blamed for tanning and wrinkles.

A separate American study in 2023 reported that a 20‑minute session killed up to 70 percent of cultured human skin cells and stamped permanent mutations on the survivors.

Sensor data from the Argentine team indicate the lamp’s irradiance peaks at 7 milliwatts per square centimeter, nearly matching the noon sun in Buenos Aires during spring.

Weekly visits translate into roughly three and a half hours under that intensity each year, more than many people spend sunbathing.

A systematic review in 2024 concluded that while the absolute cancer risk appears low, the evidence remains weak and long‑term users should be told the data gaps.

Short bursts, long shadows

Gel clients often repeat the service every two to three weeks, layering dose upon dose across years. Cumulative exposure matters because photochemical injuries add rather than heal, especially when they trigger oxidative stress and DNA breaks.

A 2023 test on human keratinocytes showed sunscreen with SPF 50 cut cell death by more than one‑third during the same four‑minute irradiation used in salons.

Protective gloves that leave only the nail plate visible can block over 90 percent of the rays, yet they remain optional accessories.

“These are processes that, in one way or another, result in cell death,” added Dántola and colleagues after monitoring the altered enzyme profiles.

The comment echoes warnings from dermatology societies that link chronic UVA to premature aging and certain skin cancers.

Keeping nails and skin safe

Dermatologists at the American Academy of Dermatology urge customers to apply a broad‑spectrum SPF 30 or higher on their hands before every gel manicure and to choose LED lamps that cure polish faster and with lower UV output.

Salons can switch to newer hybrid lacquers that air‑dry or set under visible blue light, trimming exposure further. At home, limiting sessions and spacing them at least a month apart reduces cumulative dose.

For clients unwilling to give up the chip‑free finish, simple habits help: wear fingertip‑less UPF gloves, time the lamp cycles carefully, and keep moisturizer handy because dry skin amplifies light penetration.

Regulators have yet to issue binding standards for consumer nail lamps, so the burden falls on users and technicians.

Serrano’s group believes clear warning labels and pre‑packed barrier gloves would let people enjoy the beauty trend while understanding the trade‑offs.

Manicure lamps: Speed vs. safety

The beauty business around gel nails is sizable. Analysts estimate the global UV gel polish segment alone was worth almost six billion dollars in 2024 and could double within a decade.

Social media trends and influencer tutorials push fans to redo manicures every week rather than once a month, increasing exposure well beyond the study’s four‑minute baseline. Convenience encourages at‑home kits, yet those kits often ship without detailed safety instructions.

Dántola stresses that the project sits in basic science, aimed at mapping chemical events rather than legislating behavior.

Still, sharing data allows dermatologists, engineers, and regulators to design larger trials that measure real skin after repeated consumer‑level doses.

Applied research may soon test glove fabrics, lamp filters, or polish formulas that polymerize under visible light. Until such options become standard, informed choice remains the safest tool on the manicure table.

The study is published in Chemical Research in Toxicology.

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Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago, during the geological eon known as the Hadean. The name “Hadean” comes from the Greek god of the underworld, reflecting the extreme heat that likely characterized the planet at the time.

By 4.35 billion years ago, the Earth might have cooled down enough for the first crust to form and life to emerge.

However, very little is known about this early chapter in Earth’s history, as rocks and minerals from that time are extremely rare. This lack of preserved geological records makes it difficult to reconstruct what the Earth looked like during the Hadean Eon, leaving many questions about its earliest evolution unanswered.

We are part of a research team that has confirmed the oldest known rocks on Earth are located in northern Québec. Dating back more than four billion years, these rocks provide a rare and invaluable glimpse into the origins of our planet.

Remains from the Hadean Eon

The Hadean Eon is the first period in the geological timescale, spanning from Earth’s formation 4.6 billion years ago and ending around 4.03 billion years ago.

The oldest terrestrial materials ever dated by scientists are extremely rare zircon minerals that were discovered in western Australia. These zircons were formed as early as 4.4 billion years ago, and while their host rock eroded away, the durability of zircons allowed them to be preserved for a long time.

Studies of these zircon minerals has given us clues about the Hadean environment, and the formation and evolution of Earth’s oldest crust. The zircons’ chemistry suggests that they formed in magmas produced by the melting of sediments deposited at the bottom of an ancient ocean. This suggests that the zircons are evidence that the Hadean Eon cooled rapidly, and liquid water oceans were formed early on.

Other research on the Hadean zircons suggests that the Earth’s earliest crust was mafic (rich in magnesium and iron). Until recently, however, the existence of that crust remained to be confirmed.

In 2008, a study led by one of us — associate professor Jonathan O’Neil (then a McGill University doctoral student) — proposed that rocks of this ancient crust had been preserved in northern Québec and were the only known vestige of the Hadean.

Since then, the age of those rocks — found in the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt — has been controversial and the subject of ongoing scientific debate.

‘Big, old solid rock’

The Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt is located in the northernmost region of Québec, in the Nunavik region above the 55th parallel. Most of the rocks there are metamorphosed volcanic rocks, rich in magnesium and iron. The most common rocks in the belt are called the Ujaraaluk rocks, meaning “big old solid rock” in Inuktitut.

The age of 4.3 billion years was proposed after variations in neodymium-142 were detected, an isotope produced exclusively during the Hadean through the radioactive decay of samarium-146. The relationship between samarium and neodymium isotope abundances had been previously used to date meteorites and lunar rocks, but before 2008 had never been applied to Earth rocks.

This interpretation, however, was challenged by several research groups, some of whom studied zircons within the belt and proposed a younger age of at most 3.78 billion years, placing the rocks in the Archean Eon instead.

Confirming the Hadean Age

In the summer of 2017, we returned to the Nuvvuagittuq belt to take a closer look at the ancient rocks. This time, we collected intrusive rocks — called metagabbros — that cut across the Ujaraaluk rock formation, hoping to obtain independent age constraints. The fact that these newly studied metagabbros are in intrusion in the Ujaraaluk rocks implies that the latter must be older.

The project was led by masters student Chris Sole at the University of Ottawa, who joined us in the field. Back in the laboratory, we collaborated with French geochronologist Jean-Louis Paquette. Additionally, two undergraduate students — David Benn (University of Ottawa) and Joeli Plakholm (Carleton University) participated to the project.

We combined our field observations with petrology, geochemistry, geochronology and applied two independent samarium-neodymium age dating methods, dating techniques used to assess the absolute ages of magmatic rocks, before they became metamorphic rocks. Both assessments yielded the same result: the intrusive rocks are 4.16 billion years old.

The oldest rocks

Since these metagabbros cut across the Ujaraaluk formation, the Ujaraaluk rocks must be even older, placing them firmly in the Hadean Eon.

Studying the Nuvvuagittuq rocks, the only preserved rocks from the Hadean, provides a unique opportunity to learn about the earliest history of our planet. They can help us understand how the first continents formed, and how and when Earth’s environment evolved to become habitable.