Category: 3. Business

On 12 November 2025, the Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) Civil and Commercial Court delivered a landmark judgment in the case of Jonathan David Sheppard v Jillion LLC. The case has attracted significant attention due to the citation of ‘fake cases’ in submissions to the Court. The judgment not only addresses the specific conduct in question but also sets out broader guidance for legal professionals and clients alike, particularly regarding the use of artificial intelligence (AI) and secondary sources in legal research.

Access the judgment

Background: the facts of the case

The dispute arose from an employment claim brought by Jonathan David Sheppard against Jillion LLC. During the proceedings, the defendant’s legal representative, an unnamed Dubai-based lawyer, submitted an application for an extension of time to file a defence. In support of the application, the lawyer cited several apparent cases, including “Al Khor International School v. Gulf Contracting Co. (QFC 2022)” and “Doha Bank v. KPMG (QFC App 2019)”.  

However, when the Court Registry ordered the legal representative to provide copies of the judgements, it became apparent that the cases did not exist. The lawyer initially claimed difficulty accessing the judgments on the Court’s website but later admitted, via a witness statement, that the references were included in error due to reliance on secondary sources.

The Court’s findings

The QFC Court concluded the lawyer’s conduct amounted to a breach of Article 35.2 of the Rules and Procedures of the Civil and Commercial Court, which prohibits providing false or misleading information to the Court. The Court determined that the conduct was intentional because the lawyer had persisted in referencing the fake cases even after being challenged by the Registry. The Court found the lawyer had committed a contempt of court.

However, the Court decided not to impose a penal sanction on the lawyer. Instead, it accepted the lawyer’s apology and determined that the publication of the judgment itself would serve as a sufficient deterrent to future conduct of this kind. The Court also chose to anonymise the lawyer’s identity, noting that public identification would be a disproportionately harsh penalty given the size of the legal profession practicing in the GCC.

The use of AI in litigation

The judgment situates the problem of ‘fake cases’ within a global context. The Court referred to the widely publicised US case of Mata v Avianca Inc (2023), where lawyers relied on AI-generated, non-existent cases in court submissions. Similar issues have arisen in England and Wales, Canada, and Australia, prompting courts and regulators to issue guidance on the responsible use of AI and the necessity of verifying legal authorities.

The QFC Court acknowledged that AI and digital tools can enhance legal research, reducing costs and increasing efficiency. However, it emphasised that lawyers have a professional duty to verify the accuracy of any authorities cited, whether found via AI, internet searches, or traditional research methods.

Practical implications for legal practitioners

• The key lesson from this case is the absolute necessity for lawyers to verify the existence and content of any case law or authority cited in court.
• Reliance on secondary sources, incomplete databases, or AI-generated content without proper verification is not acceptable and may result in findings of contempt or professional misconduct.
• The QFC Court announced that a draft Practice Direction would be published alongside the judgment. This Practice Direction will require all advocates before the Court to verify any case or authority cited, with sanctions, including public identification and disgrace, for breaches.
• The submission of fake cases can have serious consequences, not only for the lawyers involved but also for their clients. Courts may disregard arguments based on non-existent authorities, potentially weakening a client’s position.

Final thoughts

The judgment in Jonathan David Sheppard v Jillion LLC serves as a timely warning to the legal profession and clients alike. The use of fake cases, whether intentional or through careless reliance on AI and secondary sources, will not be tolerated by the QFC Court. Legal practitioners must ensure that all authorities cited are genuine and properly verified.

Unlock a wealth of comprehensive insights by subscribing to our new innovative platform, Law at Work. If you have any questions, please contact our employment team at lawatwork@clydeco.com.

Learn more about Law at Work

Geely Automobile Net Profit Rises Sharply on Robust Sales

China’s second-largest electric-vehicle maker reported a rise in its net profit supported by strong sales with 76,100 vehicles sold in the third quarter, up 43% from the previous year.

—-

Tesla Wants Its American Cars to Be Built Without Any Chinese Parts

This year’s U.S. tariffs on Chinese imports pushed the EV maker to accelerate its strategy of cutting China-made components out of its U.S. production.

—-

Korean Conglomerates Pledge Billions in Domestic Investments

Samsung Electronics said it and its affiliates will invest more than $300 billion over the next five years.

—-

Layoff Tactics Keep Changing, and the Blunders Keep Coming

Amazon informed staffers via a text-email combo. Target asked them to stay home. Does any of it make job cuts less painful?

—-

Nvidia Helped Spark the AI Rally. Its Earnings Could Revive It.

The chip maker blew the AI trade wide open in the spring of 2023. It might need to do it again.

—-

Meta Opens Pop-Up Stores to Build Buzz for Its AI Glasses

The stores, in New York City, Los Angeles and Las Vegas, have coffee stations and full-length mirrors for customers to take selfies in their Ray-Bans.

—-

Disney and YouTube TV Reach Deal, Ending 15-Day Standoff

ESPN, ABC and other Disney networks return to roughly 10 million YouTube TV customers.

—-

AIG Hit by More Executive Churn as Incoming President Will No Longer Join

Former Lloyd’s executive John Neal was recently hired to fill in as AIG’s No. 2. He was slated to start in two weeks.

—-

Walmart Picks Insider to Take Over as Next CEO

Doug McMillon is handing the top job to John Furner, who spent six years running the U.S. business.

—-

China-U.S. Robotaxi Race Kicks off in U.K.

Waymo, Alphabet’s self-driving car company, has partnered Uber-backed ride-hailing company Moove to enter the U.K. market next year.

—-

JBS Boosts Ground Beef, Wagyu Steak Production to Stem Beef Losses

Meatpackers like JBS and Tyson Foods are being squeezed by the lowest U.S. cattle supply since the 1950s. It is driving their beef costs to record levels, and leading to hundreds of millions of dollars in losses as a result.

—-

Purdue Pharma Wins Court Approval for $7.4 Billion Opioid Settlement

The move clears a path for the OxyContin maker to exit its six-year bankruptcy and resolve mass lawsuits.

—-

Charlie Javice Billed Hotels and Cellulite Butter as Legal Fees, JPMorgan Says

JPMorgan is seeking to get out of paying her and a co-executive’s legal defense, which has cost more than $142 million.

—-

Enbridge $1.4 Billion Project Aims to Boost Canadian Oil Flow to U.S. Refineries

Pipeline operator Enbridge will push ahead with a $1.4 billion expansion of its core network to boost deliveries of Canadian heavy oil and reach key refining markets in the U.S. Midwest and Gulf Coast.

—-

BHP Liable for Deadly Brazilian Dam Disaster, Court Rules

The ruling potentially exposes the mining company to billions of dollars in compensation claims.

  (END) Dow Jones Newswires

  November 17, 2025 01:15 ET (06:15 GMT)
Copyright (c) 2025 Dow Jones & Company, Inc.

Artificial intelligence (AI)
initiatives have come thick and fast in the travel industry over the course of 2025.

Consumer-facing solutions covering all parts of the traveler experience and B2B tools helping companies show-up on the AI platforms are all vying for attention.

In the background, travel
technology providers are scrabbling to create solutions to help travel brands drive
efficiency as well as be seen on AI platforms

With consumers getting more comfortable using the technology for trip planning, the pace of experimentation
is unlikely to let up. Phocuswright Research’s U.S. Consumer Travel report revealed
48% of millennials and 42% of Gen Z are more or much more comfortable with using
AI to help them plan trips compared to a year ago.

In its latest research, “How
AI is reshaping every step of the traveler journey,” Lufthansa Innovation Hub (LIH) has
laid out some of the most interesting use cases
announced so far across eight stages. The study looks at recent AI developments
across stages, including inspiration and planning, booking and purchase, in-flight experience
and in-destination activities.

Developments from online
giants, including Expedia with its AI-powered Trip Matching feature and
Booking.com using AI to gain a better view of traveler intent, often grab the
most headlines. 

The two companies are also among
the first partners named to have apps in the recently announced ChatGPT
initiative.

Beyond the U.S., online travel agencies (OTAs) such as MakeMyTrip and Trip.com Group have also unveiled their own initiatives. And many travel startups and smaller companies, including many in
PhocusWire’s Hot 25 Travel Startups for 2026 and some of the class of 2025,
also have skin in the game.

In the planning and inspiration
stage, LIH also calls out large and small players: AI trip planner Mindtrip, for
example, alongside Google, which announced earlier this year that it is using
Gemini to identify location place names from screenshots.

There is no shortage of developments
in the travel booking stage. LIH highlights a move from Indian airline Indigo,
which enables travelers to search, book and manage flights within a chat interface,
while Turkish Airlines has announced a Modern Context Protocol (MCP) server,
which enables AI platforms to access live airline data. Another worth mentioning is Kiwi’s development of an MCP server enabling AI assistants to trawl its
platform for flights.

For the airport experience, Lufthansa
highlights use cases for helping passengers during disruptions. United Airlines,
for example, provides personalized messages via text or email to passengers
during disruptions. There are also initiatives to get passengers through the
airport terminal more efficiently, such as AI-powered walk-through security scanners
at Frankfurt Airport.

Beyond consumer developments

While the Lufthansa study
looks at recent traveler-facing initiatives, there have also been many
announcements around B2B developments. Airlines are increasingly using AI for
route and aircraft optimization and to help them recover operations more
efficiently during disruptions.

United has also announced an
investment in and collaboration with voice and conversation AI specialist AiOla
with what it has described as “limitless applications.” Examples include safety
reporting and maintenance.

Further
recent examples of more behind the scenes developments include Apaleo’s launch
of an MCP server enabling AI agents to perform tasks across hotel operations, including
checking availability and modifying reservations.

More
recently, Boom unveiled its Business Agentic Manager for the short-term rental
industry. The agent makes decisions across functions such as marketing, guest
communications and financial reporting.

And,
Mirai has unveiled Sarai, enabling hotels to offer guests natural language
search and booking in text and voice in numerous spoken and written languages. The
initiative is part of a wider strategy to provide a “direct-sales ecosystem,”
according to the company.

It’s
too early to predict who might win the AI race in travel. Many executives are
concerned about the power the OTAs wield and the deals they have struck with AI
platforms. Others feel more confident that the companies who own the inventory, such as airlines and hotels, could have the upper hand.

What
is clearer is that the rapid pace of innovation will not subside; new models will emerge, and
everyone from supplier-direct to intermediaries and metasearch somewhere in
between will be disrupted.    

“ The capability curve: Building the next generation digital enterprise” report reveals how to bridge worker optimism and leadership caution by aligning systems, governance and human oversight to scale AI responsibly to unlock enterprise value.

ZURICH, Nov. 17, 2025 /PRNewswire/ — Akkodis, a global digital engineering consulting company, today announced the release of its latest report, The capability curve: Building the next generation digital enterprise. Drawing on insights from more than 2,000 business leaders (including 500 CTOs) and 37,500 workers worldwide, the report explores how leaders and employees can co-create AI-confident enterprises that combine human oversight with scalable, responsible AI systems.

The report reveals a defining paradox: while workers are growing more confident in their ability to work with AI, many leaders remain cautious about scaling, governance, and skills.

“AI transformation isn’t just about technology—it’s about people, trust, structure and shared capability,” said Jo Debecker, President and CEO, Akkodis. “This report shows that optimism from the workforce must be matched with system-level confidence from leadership. That’s how enterprises turn experimentation into enduring performance.”

Key findings

• Confidence gap: 75% of workers say their leaders have sufficient AI knowledge (up from 46% in 2024), while only 62% of leaders are confident in their AI implementation strategies—a 20-point decline from last year.
• Capability challenge: CTOs cite skills gaps as their biggest barrier to transformation, yet just 20% use technology to track or support employee skill growth.
• Productivity and purpose: Workers report saving two hours per day through AI—time reinvested into creativity and strategy—signalling real productivity potential that leaders aim to embed sustainably across enterprise systems.
• Resilient scaling: 57% of CTOs expect AI to reduce workforce size over the next five years, but 59% plan to redeploy employees internally, underscoring a shift toward sustainable workforce adaptation.

From insight to action

The report outlines six actions to build AI-confident enterprises:

1. Turn optimism into alignment
2. Redesign skills as a partnership
3. Elevate AI as a leadership tool
4. Embed trust in hybrid workflows
5. Scale systems with confidence
6. Build a culture of shared accountability

By following these actions, organizations embed humans in the loop at every stage of AI adoption. This is the essence of an AI-confident enterprise and the next frontier of digital transformation.

Bridging the human and technical divide

Case studies featured in the report demonstrate how organizations are embedding AI into real-world operations—from healthcare manufacturers optimizing supply and demand in seconds to engineering teams connecting digital twins and model-based systems for traceable, scalable innovation.

Together, these examples illustrate the report’s central theme: the future of digital transformation depends on technology amplifying human potential and capability, rather than replacing it.

This report was developed from three major studies—Adecco Group’s Global Workforce of the Future and Business Leaders 2025 reports (Humanity at work: How to thrive in the AI era and Leading in the Age of AI: Expectations versus reality), along with Akkodis’ 2025 What CTOs Think: Using digital transformation to scale skills and unlock enterprise potential.

“The capability curve: Building the next digital enterprise” report is available here.

Editor Notes:

The comprehensive recommendations and actions can be found on page 14 of the report.

Media contacts

Anne Friedrich
SVP, Global Head of Communications, Akkodis
E. [email protected]

Lisa Bushka
VP, External Communications, Akkodis
E. [email protected]

About Akkodis 

Akkodis is a global digital engineering consulting company that enables organizations to innovate and accelerate by applying technology to redefine how processes and products are developed, powered and optimized. With deep expertise across AI, data, cloud, edge and software engineering, we combine technology and talent to deliver end-to-end solutions, from strategy and consulting to talent development and implementation. Our commitment to Akkodis Intelligence helps businesses connect the exponential power of technology with the irreplaceable strengths of human thinking and collaboration. Part of the Adecco Group and headquartered in Switzerland, Akkodis brings together 50,000 engineers and tech consultants in over 30 countries with services that span Consulting, Talent, Solutions, and Academy. With a cross-sector view and strong delivery capabilities, Akkodis empowers businesses to solve complex challenges and achieve sustainable impact. akkodis.com | LinkedIn | Instagram | Facebook| X 

About the Adecco Group
The Adecco Group is the world’s leading talent company. Our purpose is making the future work for everyone. Through our three global business units – Adecco, Akkodis and LHH – across 60 countries, we enable sustainable and lifelong employability for individuals, deliver digital and engineering consulting solutions to power transformation and empower organisations to optimise their workforces. The Adecco Group leads by example and is committed to an inclusive culture, fostering sustainable employability, and supporting resilient economies and communities. The Adecco Group AG is headquartered in Zurich, Switzerland (ISIN: CH0012138605) and listed on the SIX Swiss Exchange (ADEN). www.adeccogroup.com

Photo – https://mma.prnewswire.com/media/2823671/The_Addeco_Group_Capability_Curve.jpg
Logo – https://mma.prnewswire.com/media/2823670/Akkodis_Logo.jpg

By Kimberley Kao and Jihye Lee

  South Korean technology stocks rose after the nation's largest conglomerates pledged billions of dollars in new domestic investments, in a push to shore up the country's manufacturing base as Seoul works to ease trade frictions with Washington. 

  Shares of Samsung rose more than 3% as of midday on Monday and SK Hynix rose 7%. LG Electronics traded 1.2% higher, HD Hyundai rose 5.6%, while Hyundai Motor edged 0.1% lower. Shares of Hanwha Group rose 2.0%. 

  The conglomerates' announcements come after South Korea struck a trade deal with the U.S. last month and committed to investing $350 billion in U.S. industries as part of the agreement. 

  Samsung Electronics unveiled the biggest investment plan, saying it and its affiliates will invest 450 trillion Korean won, equivalent to $310.66 billion, nationwide over the next five years. The plan includes spending on AI data centers, research and development, as well as a new chip production line in Pyeongtaek, scheduled to begin full-scale operations in 2028. 

  Hyundai Motor Group committed to investments of 125.2 trillion won over the same period, with funds allocated to robotics, autonomous driving and setting up dedicated electric-vehicle production facilities. 

  Hyundai Motor Group Chair Chung Euisun, speaking at a meeting with South Korean President Lee Jae Myung on Sunday, said the company is preparing for the impact of U.S. trade measures. 

  "We're well aware of the U.S. tariff rate of 15% and how this can lead to a drop in exports as well as weighing on domestic productivity," Chung said at the meeting. 

  "We plan to diversify export regions, expand exports from domestic plants, and--via a new EV-dedicated domestic plant--more than double vehicle exports by 2030," he said. 

  LG said it plans to invest around 100 trillion won over the next five years, with 60% directed toward technology development and expansion for the materials, components and equipment segments. 

  SK Group reiterated its earlier pledge to invest about 128 trillion won through 2028, noting a rise in demand for memory chips and rapid process upgrades driving up investment needs. 

  SK Group Chief Executive Chey Tae-won said SK's planned fab in Yongin will require roughly 500 trillion won over time, and that the pace of injecting capital will depend on market demand. 

  "It's difficult to estimate the exact scope for now... but what we can say is that our range of capability in investment is significantly large, and we plan on allocating closely aligned with demand trends," Chey said. 

  Write to Kimberley Kao at kimberley.kao@wsj.com and Jihye Lee at jihye.lee@wsj.com 

  (END) Dow Jones Newswires

  November 17, 2025 00:25 ET (05:25 GMT)
Copyright (c) 2025 Dow Jones & Company, Inc.

By Jiahui Huang

  Geely Automobile reported stronger earnings in the third quarter, thanks to the Chinese auto giant's robust performance despite stiff competition in its home market. 

  Net profit rose to 3.82 billion yuan, equivalent to $538.1 million, from 2.40 billion yuan a year earlier, on revenue that increased 27% to 89.19 billion yuan, the Hangzhou-based automaker said Monday. Geely sold a total of 76,100 vehicles in the third quarter, up 43% from the previous year. 

  Geely, China's second-largest electric-vehicle maker, has been growing its market share with strong product offerings. The automaker has experienced rapid growth in sales volume this year, driven by its range of products and competitive pricing. In July, it raised its annual sales target to 3 million units from 2.17 million units. 

  Geely's subsidiary Zeekr also posted strong sales in the third quarter, with its total delivery volume rising 12.5% to 140,195 units. The company's revenue climbed 9.1% to 31.56 billion yuan, and its gross profit margin improved to 19.2%. 

  Write to Jiahui Huang at jiahui.huang@wsj.com 

  (END) Dow Jones Newswires

  November 17, 2025 00:11 ET (05:11 GMT)
Copyright (c) 2025 Dow Jones & Company, Inc.

Introduction

Kawasaki disease (KD) is an acute systemic vasculitis predominantly affecting children and represents one of the leading causes of acquired heart disease in pediatric populations.¹ Although standard treatment with intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) combined with aspirin has significantly reduced the incidence of coronary artery lesions (CALs), approximately 10–20% of patients remain unresponsive to IVIG therapy. These non-responders are at markedly increased risk of developing CALs.^2,3 Early prediction could facilitate timely adjustments to the treatment strategy-such as the early combination of glucocorticoids-which may play a crucial role in improving patient outcomes and shortening the disease course.⁴ Therefore, early identification of KD and prediction of IVIG resistance are critical for optimizing clinical management and improving outcomes.

Immune dysregulation plays a central role in the pathogenesis of KD. Previous studies have demonstrated that dynamic changes in the Th1/Th2 cytokine profile are closely associated with disease progression.⁵ Our prior research⁵ revealed that a low pretreatment level of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α < 2 pg/mL) was predictive of IVIG resistance, with a specificity of 74.2% and a sensitivity of 66.7%. Additionally, an elevated pretreatment interleukin-10 (IL-10 > 8 pg/mL) level was associated with CALs (sensitivity 75.0%, specificity 64.4%), while post-treatment IL-6 > 10 pg/mL showed even greater predictive value (specificity 81.7%). Furthermore, non-responders exhibited delayed clearance of IL-6 and IL-10, along with a paradoxical increase in TNF-α levels following IVIG administration.

However, the immunological network underlying KD extends beyond the traditional Th1/Th2 paradigm. Recent evidence suggests that Th17-mediated inflammatory responses and monocyte-derived cytokines (eg, IL-1β and IL-8) play pivotal roles in endothelial injury and vascular inflammation.^6–9 Moreover, most previous studies have focused on a limited panel of 6–8 cytokines, and a comprehensive analysis of the broader immune landscape is lacking.

In this study, we aimed to evaluate a panel of 12 key cytokines to establish a multifactor predictive model for KD diagnosis and IVIG responsiveness. By integrating multidimensional immunological indicators, we sought to explore the potential of cytokines as biomarkers for therapeutic response and to provide a novel basis for risk stratification and individualized treatment in KD patients.

Materials and Methods

Study Population and Diagnostic Criteria

We conducted a retrospective case-control study involving pediatric patients admitted to Children’s Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, between December 1, 2023, and March 30, 2025. Patients diagnosed with KD and febrile controls were enrolled for comparative analysis on the basis of clinical records, laboratory findings, and echocardiographic data. This study was approved by the Medical Ethics Committee of the Children’s Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine (2025-IRB-0318-P-01).

A KD diagnosis was established according to the following criteria: complete KD: presence of fever lasting ≥5 days and at least four of the following five principal clinical features: (1) bilateral bulbar conjunctival injection; (2) oral and lip changes, including erythema, cracking, strawberry tongue, or diffuse oral mucosal injection; (3) polymorphous rash, including isolated BCG scar erythema; (4) peripheral extremity changes, such as erythema or edema of the hands and feet in the acute phase, or periungual desquamation in the convalescent phase; and (5) cervical lymphadenopathy (≥1.5 cm in diameter), typically unilateral and nonsuppurative. Incomplete KD: Fever persisting ≥5 days with fewer than four principal clinical features, diagnosed according to the 2017 American Heart Association scientific statement guidelines.²

The febrile controls were defined as children with (1) a body temperature >38.5°C and (2) available results for the 12-cytokine panel.

Treatment Protocol

Upon confirmation of KD diagnosis, patients received IVIG at a single dose of 2 g/kg, along with moderate-dose aspirin (30–50 mg/kg/day). In cases where aspirin was contraindicated, clopidogrel (0.2–1 mg/kg/day) was used as an alternative.

Definitions of IVIG Resistance and CALs

IVIG resistance was defined as persistent or recurrent fever ≥38°C at least 36 hours after completion of the initial IVIG infusion or recurrence of fever within two weeks (typically between days 2–7) accompanied by at least one principal clinical feature of KD after excluding other potential causes of fever.² CALs were assessed by echocardiography and defined as a coronary artery z score ≥2.5 on the basis of the internal diameter adjusted for body surface area.²

Exclusion Criteria

Patients with incomplete clinical data, those who received IVIG or corticosteroids prior to admission, or those with delayed treatment (IVIG administration >10 days after onset) were excluded from the study.

Methodology

Cytokine Analysis: Venous blood samples were collected from patients with KD during the acute phase before IVIG treatment. For febrile controls, blood samples were obtained at the time of admission. A total of 1 mL of venous blood was transferred into a serum separation tube without anticoagulant and allowed to clot at room temperature for 30 minutes. Approximately 0.5 mL of serum was then separated and sent for analysis. All the samples were processed and analyzed within 4 hours of collection. If immediate analysis was not feasible, the serum samples were stored at 2–8°C for no more than 24 hours. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles were strictly avoided.

Serum levels of 12 cytokines (IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p70, IL-17, IFN-α, IFN-γ, and TNF-α) were quantified using a multiplex immunofluorescence assay (cytometric bead array-based flow fluorescence technology) with a commercial kit (Jiangxi Saiji Biotechnology Co., Ltd). The assay is based on a sandwich immunoassay principle in which polystyrene microspheres, each with a distinct fluorescence intensity, are coated with monoclonal antibodies specific to individual cytokines. After incubation with serum samples, cytokines were captured by the corresponding microspheres, followed by the addition of phycoerythrin (PE)-labeled detection antibodies to form sandwich complexes. The fluorescence intensity was measured using a flow cytometer (BD FACS Calibur), and the cytokine concentrations were calculated based on standard curves.

Prior to analysis, all the samples were thawed at room temperature and processed strictly according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The linear detection range was 2.5–2500 pg/mL for most cytokines (10–2500 pg/mL for IL-17), with a lower limit of detection of 2.5 pg/mL (10 pg/mL for IL-17). Each batch included negative controls and serially diluted standards to ensure accuracy and reproducibility.

Clinical characteristics, including sex, age in months, inflammatory markers, echocardiographic findings, treatment regimens, and outcomes, were retrospectively collected from electronic medical records.

Statistical Analysis

The normality of continuous variables was assessed using the one-sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. Normally distributed data were expressed as the means ± standard deviations and were compared via independent-sample t tests. Nonnormally distributed data were presented as medians (interquartile ranges, P25–P75) and were analyzed via the Mann–Whitney U-test. Categorical variables were expressed as counts and percentages (%) and were compared via the chi-square test. This study employed a binary logistic regression model to identify independent risk factors influencing (1) the diagnosis of KD (yes/no) and (2) IVIG resistance (yes/no).

Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were constructed using clinical features and cytokine levels from all KD patients and febrile controls. The sensitivity and specificity for predicting KD and IVIG resistance were calculated on the basis of optimal cutoff values derived from ROC analysis. All the statistical analyses were performed via SPSS version 23.0. A two-tailed P value <0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results

Comparison Between Kawasaki Disease Patients and Febrile Controls

Between December 2023 and March 2025, a total of 864 children diagnosed with KD were hospitalized at our institution. After cases with incomplete data, prior use of IVIG or corticosteroids, or delayed treatment (IVIG administration >10 days after onset) were excluded, 686 KD patients were ultimately enrolled, including 409 males and 277 females, with a mean age of 70.0 (38.0, 109.0) months. Additionally, 101 febrile children without KD admitted during the same period were included as controls (Figure 1). All children have been followed up for more than six months.

Figure 1 Flow of participants through the study.

Comparative analysis revealed that KD patients were significantly younger than control patients were, while no significant difference in sex distribution was detected. Compared with those in the controls, the serum levels of IFN-α, IL-10, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, and IL-8 were significantly elevated in the KD group. In addition, the absolute neutrophil count and white blood cell count were significantly greater in KD patients. However, no significant differences in C-reactive protein (CRP) or the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) were detected between the two groups (Table 1).

Table 1 Comparison of Clinical Characteristics Between Kawasaki Disease Patients and Febrile Controls

A logistic regression model was subsequently constructed to identify independent predictors of KD compared with febrile controls. The analysis revealed that age in months (OR=0.974, CI [0.966, 0.982], P<0.001), IL-10 level (OR=1.068, CI [1.020, 1.117], P=0.005), IL-5 level (OR=1.935, CI [1.385, 2.703], P<0.001), absolute neutrophil count (OR=1.170, CI [1.024, 1.337], P=0.021), and white blood cell count (OR=0.878, CI [0.777, 0.992], P=0.037) were independent predictive factors associated with KD (Table 2).

Table 2 Logistic Regression Model of Variables Independently Associated with Kawasaki Disease Compared with Febrile Controls

Further analysis revealed the diagnostic performance of individual and combined markers for KD patients compared with febrile controls. The area under the curve (AUC) of the ROC curve for single indicators was as follows: 0.734 for age in months, 0.741 for IL-10, 0.774 for IL-5, 0.613 for white blood cell count, and 0.589 for absolute neutrophil count. The AUC for the combined diagnostic model was 0.853, with a sensitivity of 0.758 and specificity of 0.812 (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves for the diagnosis of Kawasaki disease. Abbreviations: PRE, predicted probability; N, absolute neutrophil count; WBC, white blood cell count; IL, interleukin; AGE, age in months.

When the IL-10 concentration was greater than 7.25 pg/mL, the sensitivity and specificity for diagnosing KD were 0.517 and 0.832, respectively. When the concentration of IL-5 exceeded 1.950 pg/mL, the sensitivity and specificity were 0.678 and 0.772, respectively. Similarly, at a cutoff of 2.050 pg/mL for IL-5, the sensitivity and specificity were 0.638 and 0.812, respectively.

Efficacy of the 12-Cytokine Panel in Predicting IVIG Resistance

Among the 686 KD patients included in the analysis, there were no significant differences in age or sex between the IVIG-responsive and IVIG-resistant groups. A total of 606 patients were classified as IVIG-responsive, while 80 were identified as IVIG-resistant. Univariate analysis revealed that the levels of IFN-γ (5.20 (3.43, 7.75) vs 3.80 (2.80, 5.50), P<0.001), IL-10 (22.05 (8.90, 71.60) vs 6.85 (3.80, 14.83), P<0.001), IL-17 (6.55 (4.20, 12.45) vs 5.60 (3.50, 9.40), P=0.043), IL-2 (4.80 (3.70, 5.60) vs 4.00 (3.10, 4.80), P<0.001), IL-5 (3.15 (1.90, 6.30) vs 2.50 (1.70, 4.20), P=0.013), IL-6 (124.50 (57.95, 233.18) vs 48.50 (24.73, 94.83), P<0.001), and IL-8 (44.90 (21.05, 108.33) vs 16.95 (9.80, 30.50), P<0.001) were significantly higher in the IVIG-resistant group compared to the IVIG-responsive group. In contrast, IFN-α levels (1.80 (1.50, 2.40) vs 2.10 (1.70, 2.70), P=0.001) were significantly lower in the IVIG-resistant group (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Comparison of 12-cytokine profiles between the IVIG-responsive and IVIG-resistant groups. *P < 0.05, ***P < 0.001, ****P < 0.0001. Abbreviations: IFN, interferon; IL, interleukin; TNF, tumor necrosis factor.

A logistic regression model was subsequently constructed to identify independent predictors of IVIG resistance in KD patients. The analysis revealed that IL-10 (OR=1.006, CI [1.000, 1.013], P=0.047) and IL-8 (OR=1.016, CI [1.009, 1.024], P<0.001) were independent predictive factors associated with IVIG unresponsiveness (Table 3).

Table 3 Logistic Regression Model of Variables Independently Associated with IVIG Resistance Compared with IVIG Responsiveness

To evaluate the predictive value of individual and combined cytokines for IVIG resistance in KD patients, ROC curve analysis was performed. The AUC for individual markers was 0.752 for IL-10 and 0.738 for IL-8. The AUC for the combined diagnostic model was 0.749, with a sensitivity of 0.713 and a specificity of 0.670 (Figure 4).

Figure 4 ROC curves of cytokines for predicting IVIG resistance in Kawasaki disease. Abbreviations: IL, interleukin; PRE, predicted probability.

When the IL-10 concentration was greater than 14.70 pg/mL, the sensitivity and specificity for predicting IVIG resistance were 0.675 and 0.748, respectively. Similarly, when the concentration of IL-8 was greater than 23.55 pg/mL, the sensitivity and specificity were 0.725 and 0.658, respectively.

Discussion

Cytokines, secreted by immune and selected non-immune cells, are pivotal mediators and modulators of immune responses and inflammatory processes.¹⁰ The pathogenesis of KD is considered multifactorial, integrating genetic susceptibility with infectious, environmental, or other antigenic triggers that precipitate an exaggerated inflammatory cascade in predisposed individuals, in which cytokines play a central role.¹¹ In the present study, we evaluated the diagnostic and predictive utility of a 12-cytokine panel in KD. Elevated IL-10 and IL-5 have emerged as independent predictors of KD diagnosis, whereas elevated IL-10 and IL-8 independently predict IVIG resistance.

Cytokines are centrally implicated in the pathogenesis of KD. During the acute phase, multiple pro-inflammatory cytokines—such as TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10, and IFN-γ—along with chemokines (eg, CCL2) and growth factors (eg, VEGF) are markedly elevated, orchestrating endothelial injury and systemic inflammation.^5,12–14 These mediators activate immune cells (monocytes and neutrophils) and the vascular endothelium, amplifying the release of inflammatory molecules and upregulating the expression of endothelial adhesion molecules, thereby precipitating vasculitis.¹⁵ In the present study, we evaluated the diagnostic utility of a 12-cytokine panel in KD and identified younger age, high IL-10, high IL-5, elevated white blood cell count, and increased absolute neutrophil count as independent predictors. The combined model yielded an AUC of 0.853, with a sensitivity of 0.758 and a specificity of 0.812.

Approximately 10–20% of children with KD exhibit resistance to IVIG, and IVIG nonresponse constitutes an independent risk factor for coronary artery lesions.² Consequently, several studies have recommended that patients at high predicted risk of IVIG resistance receive initial combination therapy with IVIG plus corticosteroids such as methylprednisolone or even biologics such as infliximab.^4,16 Accumulating evidence indicates that elevated cytokine levels correlate with IVIG refractoriness, underscoring the pivotal role of these mediators in KD pathogenesis and treatment response.¹⁷ In the present work, we evaluated a 12-cytokine panel for its ability to predict IVIG resistance and identified high IL-10 and high IL-8 levels as independent predictors of non-response. At a cut-off of 14.70 pg/mL for IL-10, the sensitivity and specificity for predicting IVIG resistance were 0.675 and 0.748, respectively, whereas an IL-8 threshold of 23.55 pg/mL yielded a sensitivity of 0.725 and a specificity of 0.658. Previously published models for predicting IVIG resistance, both domestically and internationally, have consistently included CRP.^18,19 Cytokines act as upstream signals, whereas CRP functions as a downstream effector; the two are closely correlated, especially for IL-6.²⁰ Therefore, CRP was not included in our IVIG-resistance prediction model.

We observed a dual predictive role for IL-10 in both the diagnosis of KD and the identification of IVIG resistance, echoing our 2013 finding that pretreatment with IL-10 > 8 pg/mL is associated with CALs. Functionally, IL-10 suppresses the production of key inflammatory mediators—including TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1—thereby attenuating excessive inflammation.²¹ Consistent with a compensatory counter-regulatory response, the serum IL-10 concentration increases markedly during the acute phase of KD and decreases after therapy.^22,23 This temporal pattern has been corroborated in patients with KD shock syndrome (KDSS), in whom IL-10 concentrations are significantly higher than those in uncomplicated KD patients and correlate with disease severity, supporting its potential as a biomarker for KDSS.²⁴ At the genetic level, polymorphisms within the IL-10 promoter (eg, −627 A/C and −592 A>C) have been linked to an increased risk of coronary aneurysms, implying that heritable variation in IL-10 expression modulates individual susceptibility and clinical progression.^25,26 Collectively, the pleiotropic effects of IL-10 in KD include both anti-inflammatory modulation and, under certain conditions, the promotion of vascular pathology, underscoring the value of serial IL-10 measurements for disease monitoring and prognostic assessment.

IL-5, a cytokine secreted by Th2 lymphocytes, mast cells, and eosinophils, exerts its biological effects via the IL-5 receptor.²⁷ It drives B-cell differentiation and antibody production, governs eosinophil development and function, and participates in immune regulation.^28–30 Consequently, IL-5 is implicated in allergic disorders (eg, asthma and allergic rhinitis), parasitic infections, autoimmune diseases, and selected malignancies.^29,30 In the present study, serum IL-5 levels were significantly elevated in KD patients relative to febrile controls and were further increased in those exhibiting IVIG resistance. These findings suggest that IL-5 may contribute to KD pathogenesis and modulate therapeutic responsiveness and suggest that IL-5–targeted therapy could constitute a novel treatment paradigm for KD.

IL-8 (CXCL8), a prototypical CXC chemokine, serves as a central mediator of inflammation, orchestrating chemotaxis and cellular activation, endothelial regulation, pro-inflammatory cascades, tissue injury, and angiogenesis in chronic inflammation.³¹ During the acute phase of KD, plasma IL-8 concentrations are markedly elevated and form a synergistic pro-inflammatory network with IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α. This axis may drive neutrophil-mediated vascular injury, activate the NF-κB signaling pathway, and modulate endothelial dysfunction, thereby contributing to the vasculitic process in KD.^32–34 In the present cohort, IL-8 levels were significantly higher in IVIG-resistant patients; at a cutoff of 23.55 pg/mL, IL-8 predicted IVIG unresponsiveness with a sensitivity of 0.725 and a specificity of 0.658.

Compared with prior investigations, the present study extends the breadth and integrates the depth of existing knowledge. By incorporating IL-5, IL-8, and IL-17 into the panel, we revealed the independent predictive value of Th2-related IL-5 and the chemokine IL-8 and constructed a multidimensional model integrating “cytokine–immune cell–clinical parameter” information (eg, the IL-5 + IL-10 + younger age diagnostic score).

Nevertheless, several limitations must be acknowledged. First, as a retrospective single-center study with a modest sample size, potential geographic and ethnic biases may limit generalizability to other populations. Second, post-treatment 12-cytokine measurements were not performed, precluding longitudinal kinetic analyses. Third, the use of contemporaneous febrile patients as controls may introduce selection bias. Prospective validation with larger cohorts and, if warranted, multicenter randomized controlled trials are needed to confirm these findings.

Conclusion

The 12-cytokine panel effectively supports both the diagnosis of KD and the prediction of IVIG resistance. Elevated IL-10 and IL-5 are independent predictors of KD diagnosis, whereas elevated IL-10 and IL-8 independently predict IVIG unresponsiveness.

Abbreviations

KD, Kawasaki disease; IVIG, intravenous immunoglobulin; CALs, coronary artery lesions; AUC, area under the curve.

Data Sharing Statement

Anonymized research data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Ethics Declarations

This retrospective study involving human participants was in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The medical ethics committee of the Children’s Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine approved this study (NO.: 2025-IRB-0318-P-01). Since the information was anonymized and the submission did not include images that may identify the person, The medical ethics committee of the Children’s Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine waived the need of obtaining individual informed consent forms.

This study was conducted and reported in accordance with the REporting of studies Conducted using Observational Routinely-collected Data (RECORD) guidelines.

Author Contributions

Weixing Kong: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology and Writing – original draft; Lichao Gao: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology and Writing – original draft; Jian Hu: Investigation, Supervision and Writing – review and editing; Zhufei Xu: Investigation, Supervision and Writing – review and editing; Qing Zhang: Investigation, Supervision and Writing – review and editing; Yujia Wang: Investigation, Supervision and Writing – review and editing; Songling Fu: Investigation, Supervision and Writing – review and editing; Chunhong Xie: Investigation, Supervision and Writing – review and editing; Fangqi Gong: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision and Writing – review and editing. All authors took part in drafting, revising or critically reviewing the article; gave final approval of the version to be published; have agreed on the journal to which the article has been submitted; and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

Funding

This work was supported, in part, by grants from Key R&D Program of Zhejiang (2024C03179).

Disclosure

The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

References

1. Jone PN, Tremoulet A, Choueiter N, et al. Update on diagnosis and management of kawasaki disease: a scientific statement from the American heart association. Circulation. 2024;150(23):e481–e500. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000001295

2. McCrindle BW, Rowley AH, Newburger JW, et al. Diagnosis, treatment, and long-term management of kawasaki disease: a scientific statement for health professionals from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2017;135(17):e927–e999. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000484

3. Tong T, Gong FQ. Navigating the 2024 AHA guidelines for Kawasaki disease: practical insights for clinicians. World J Pediatr. 2025;21(4):323–327. doi:10.1007/s12519-025-00892-9

4. Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Kawasaki Disease/Children’s Hospital of Shaanxi Provincial People’s Hospital. National Children’s Medical Center/Beijing Children’s Hospital, Capital Medical University, Children’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, et al. [Evidence-based guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of Kawasaki disease in children in China (2023)]. Zhongguo Dang Dai Er Ke Za Zhi. 2023;25(12):1198–1210. Chinese. doi:10.7499/j.issn.1008-8830.2309038

5. Wang Y, Wang W, Gong F, et al. Evaluation of intravenous immunoglobulin resistance and coronary artery lesions in relation to Th1/Th2 cytokine profiles in patients with Kawasaki disease. Arthritis Rheum. 2013;65(3):805–814. doi:10.1002/art.37815

6. Zhang Z, Zhao L, Zhou X, Meng X, Zhou X. Role of inflammation, immunity, and oxidative stress in hypertension: new insights and potential therapeutic targets. Front Immunol. 2022;13:1098725. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.1098725

7. Lin IC, Suen JL, Huang SK, et al. Involvement of IL-17 A/IL-17 receptor A with neutrophil recruitment and the severity of coronary arteritis in Kawasaki disease. J Clin Immunol. 2024;44(3):77. doi:10.1007/s10875-024-01673-1

8. Huang J, Li Y, Jiang Z, et al. IL-1β promotes hypoxic vascular endothelial cell proliferation through the miR-24-3p/NKAP/NF-κB axis. Biosci Rep. 2022;42(1):BSR20212062. doi:10.1042/BSR20212062

9. Shkundin A, Halaris A. IL-8 (CXCL8) correlations with psychoneuroimmunological processes and neuropsychiatric conditions. J Pers Med. 2024;14(5):488. doi:10.3390/jpm14050488

10. Liu C, Chu D, Kalantar-Zadeh K, George J, Young HA, Liu G. Cytokines: from clinical significance to quantification. Adv Sci. 2021;8(15):e2004433. doi:10.1002/advs.202004433

11. Goel AR, Yalcindag A. An update on Kawasaki disease. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2024;27(1):4. doi:10.1007/s11926-024-01167-4

12. Chen CY, Huang SH, Chien KJ, et al. Reappraisal of VEGF in the pathogenesis of Kawasaki disease. Children. 2022;9(9):1343. doi:10.3390/children9091343

13. Shikishima Y, Saeki T, Matsuura N. Chemokines in Kawasaki disease: measurement of CCL2, CCL22 and CXCL10. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol. 2003;21(3):139–143.

14. Bordea M, Costache C, Grama A, et al. Cytokine cascade in Kawasaki disease versus kawasaki-like syndrome. Physiol Res. 2022;71(1):17–27. doi:10.33549/physiolres.934672

15. Noval Rivas M, Arditi M. Kawasaki disease: pathophysiology and insights from mouse models. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2020;16(7):391–405. doi:10.1038/s41584-020-0426-0

16. Jone PN, Anderson MS, Mulvahill MJ, Heizer H, Glodé MP, Dominguez SR. Infliximab plus Intravenous Immunoglobulin (IVIG) versus IVIG alone as initial therapy in children with Kawasaki disease presenting with coronary artery lesions: is dual therapy more effective? Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2018;37(10):976–980. doi:10.1097/INF.0000000000001951

17. Wang Y, Qian SY, Yuan Y, et al. Do cytokines correlate with refractory Kawasaki disease in children? Clin Chim Acta. 2020;506:222–227. doi:10.1016/j.cca.2020.03.014

18. Kobayashi T, Inoue Y, Takeuchi K, et al. Prediction of intravenous immunoglobulin unresponsiveness in patients with Kawasaki disease. Circulation. 2006;113(22):2606–2612. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.592865

19. Egami K, Muta H, Ishii M, et al. Prediction of resistance to intravenous immunoglobulin treatment in patients with Kawasaki disease. J Pediatr. 2006;149(2):237–240. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.03.050

20. Ridker PM. From C-reactive protein to interleukin-6 to interleukin-1: moving upstream to identify novel targets for atheroprotection. Circ Res. 2016;118(1):145–156. doi:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.115.306656

21. Williams LM, Ricchetti G, Sarma U, Smallie T, Foxwell BMJ. Interleukin-10 suppression of myeloid cell activation–a continuing puzzle. Immunology. 2004;113(3):281–292. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2004.01988.x

22. Chang L, Yang HW, Lin TY, Yang KD. Perspective of immunopathogenesis and immunotherapies for Kawasaki disease. Front Pediatr. 2021;9:697632. doi:10.3389/fped.2021.697632

23. Guo MM, Huang YH, Kuo HC. Corticosteroid effects on IL-10 and IL-1β in U937-derived macrophages: a model for Kawasaki disease-associated inflammation. Cytokine. 2025;185:156809. doi:10.1016/j.cyto.2024.156809

24. Li Y, Zheng Q, Zou L, et al. Kawasaki disease shock syndrome: clinical characteristics and possible use of IL-6, IL-10 and IFN-γ as biomarkers for early recognition. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J. 2019;17(1):1. doi:10.1186/s12969-018-0303-4

25. Jin HS, Kim HB, Kim BS, et al. The IL-10 (−627 A/C) promoter polymorphism may be associated with coronary aneurysms and low serum albumin in Korean children with Kawasaki disease. Pediatr Res. 2007;61(5 Pt 1):584–587. doi:10.1203/pdr.0b013e3180459fb5

26. Ferdosian F, Dastgheib SA, Morovati-Sharifabad M, et al. Cumulative evidence for association between IL-10 polymorphisms and kawasaki disease susceptibility: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Fetal Pediatr Pathol. 2021;40(2):153–165. doi:10.1080/15513815.2019.1686789

27. Takatsu K. Interleukin-5 and IL-5 receptor in health and diseases. Proc Jpn Acad Ser B Phys Biol Sci. 2011;87(8):463–485. doi:10.2183/pjab.87.463

28. Antosz K, Batko J, Błażejewska M, Gawor A, Sleziak J, Gomułka K. Insight into IL-5 as a potential target for the treatment of allergic diseases. Biomedicines. 2024;12(7):1531. doi:10.3390/biomedicines12071531

29. Farne HA, Wilson A, Milan S, Banchoff E, Yang F, Powell CV. Anti-IL-5 therapies for asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022;7(7):CD010834. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010834.pub4

30. Buchheit KM, Shaw D, Chupp G, et al. Interleukin-5 as a pleiotropic cytokine orchestrating airway type 2 inflammation: effects on and beyond eosinophils. Allergy. 2024;79(10):2662–2679. doi:10.1111/all.16303

31. Russo RC, Garcia CC, Teixeira MM, Amaral FA. The CXCL8/IL-8 chemokine family and its receptors in inflammatory diseases. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2014;10(5):593–619. doi:10.1586/1744666X.2014.894886

32. Asano T, Ogawa S. Expression of IL-8 in Kawasaki disease. Clin Exp Immunol. 2000;122(3):514–519. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2249.2000.01395.x

33. Barron KS. Kawasaki disease: etiology, pathogenesis, and treatment. Cleve Clin J Med. 2002;69(Suppl 2):SII69–78. doi:10.3949/ccjm.69.Suppl_2.SII69

34. Rife E, Gedalia A. Kawasaki disease: an update. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2020;22(10):75. doi:10.1007/s11926-020-00941-4

And here’s what those incentives are:

Daily GMV Incentive Program
TSPs can earn cash incentives between $5,000 and $20,000 between Oct. 1 to Dec. 31, based on their Q4 incremental daily GMV growth — or how much they sell.

Partner onboard and upgrade incentive
TSPs can earn up to $10,000 in cash for upgrading through TikTok Shop’s partner rankings for the first time, provided they stay at their new ranking for the duration of the incentive period (Oct. 1 to Dec. 31).

Vertical creator incubation incentive
TSPs can earn between $1,000 and $10,000 per creator between Oct. 1 to Dec. 31 for successfully incubating TikTok’s target list creators.

Affiliate service incentive — milestone program

• Incentive 1: Between Oct. 1 and Dec. 31, TikTok will rank its TSPs in descending order from 15 to one, based on their target plan short video GMV increment. Each month, those which also meet the minimum incremental GMV requirement can earn between $1,000 and $5,000 in ad credits. There’s even the option to earn a bonus $2,000 in ad credits for ranking in the top 15 for all three months.

• Incentive 2: Between Oct. 1 and Dec. 31, TSPs that provide creator services can earn up to $1,000 in ad credits per seller (up to 70 sellers), provided they meet all eligibility requirements and incentive conditions.

Black Friday/Cyber Monday offerings

BFCM partner challenge
Between Nov. 12 and Dec. 1, TikTok created the following challenges depending on TSPs ranking level (according to the number of new short video posts):

• Challenge 1: TSPs that provide creator matchmaking services can earn up to $25,000 in cash.
• Challenge 2: TSPs with a daily GMV either greater than or equal to $20,000 in October can earn up to $12,000.
• Challenge 3: TSPs with a daily GMV of less than $20,000 in October can earn up to $2,000.

There’s even three content challenges specifically for BFCM around short video, a livestream championship and key livestream (by invitation only).

TikTok covers the costs
And for those sellers who aren’t in the mood for free cash or ad credits, for Black Friday and Cyber Monday, TikTok is still offering brands fully-funded and partially-funded coupons and discounts, where TikTok will cover all or part of their marketing costs, as well as the invitation-only flash sales.

The big picture

For the most part, TikTok Shop has been one of the short-form video app’s huge success stories since it launched in the U.S. in September 2023. Since then, it appears to have gone from strength to strength in terms of revenues generated, so much so it’s been reportedly likened and compared to its 30-year-old competitor, eBay. 

Between September 2023 to August 2024, TikTok Shop recorded $1.1 billion in gross merchandise value (GMV), and shifted around 67 million units of stock, according to data from Charm.io. This increased to $2.5 billion GMV and around 139 million units of stock between September 2024 and August 2025.

And BFCM has been a big part of that story. According to TikTok’s internal data, which was presented on its 2025 TikTok Shop Black Friday & Cyber Monday seller deck that Digiday has seen, BFCM raked in more than 100 million sales, while sellers saw a three times uplift in GMV (compared to the previous year). Added to that, TikTok Shop saw more than four billion views on #TikTokShopBlackFriday and a third of TikTok Shop purchases went to small- to medium-sized businesses.

When it comes to ad spend, from January 2025 through to Nov. 10 this year, TikTok Shop has raked in $498.8 million in ad spend, per Charm.io.

“As a bet, TikTok Shop has already hit, but the payoff is only just beginning to roll in,” said Max Willens, principal analyst, social media and the creator economy at eMarketer. “It will be interesting to see how TikTok’s AI-powered ad solution, GMV Max, influences TikTok Shop’s growth, now that merchants are required to use it. If GMV Max can continue to deliver efficient results as its use keeps scaling, it could push TikTok Shop into another gear of growth.”

But that’s only been part of its focus. Motivating marketers to push harder on its e-commerce arm comes at a time when TikTok has already been aggressively on the hunt for ad dollars in recent weeks. It’s been reported that the platform has been encouraging brands and agencies to boost their ad spend — despite there still being no clarity around its U.S. deal.

“It makes perfect sense for TikTok to try to boost its business ahead of the deal, especially given the underwhelming valuation of $14 billion,” said Jasmine Enberg, co-founder and co-CEO of Scalable. “TikTok will want to make its business as attractive as possible to buyers and give itself as much negotiating power as possible. It wants to get as many advertisers on board and spending ahead of the sale to try to mitigate the inevitable disruption to its business.” 

If all goes well, the short-form video app will be on track to meet WARC’s global social media ad spend forecast.

Social media ad spend is projected to rise 14.9% to $306.4 billion, according to WARC’s updated global ad spend forecasts. Within that, TikTok is expected to take 10.3% of all social media spend this year, increasing to 11.7% by 2027.